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		<title>GALERIE ART PREMIER AFRICAIN<br />GALERIE ART PRIMITIF AFRICAIN<br />AFRICAN ART GALLERY</title>
		<link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Carticle_depart%2C%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
		<description>GALERIE ART PREMIER AFRICAIN<br />GALERIE ART PRIMITIF AFRICAIN<br />AFRICAN ART GALLERY</description>
		<language>en</language>
		<pubDate>Fri, 13 Jan 2012 08:38:31 GMT</pubDate>
		<lastBuildDate>Mon, 06 Feb 2012 11:08:49 GMT</lastBuildDate>
		<docs>http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/tech/rss</docs>
		<generator>CAMUXI 3.0208</generator>
      <item>
         <title>Oba du Benin</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FOba%2Bdu%2BBenin-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div&gt;	Oba du Benin&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;Oba du Benin est le dirigeant de l&amp;#39;ancien royaume du Benin. Il n&amp;rsquo;a plus de r&amp;eacute;el pouvoir depuis l&amp;#39;annexion du royaume par les Britanniques en 1897. Il garde cependant un r&amp;ocirc;le consultatif au sein du gouvernement. Il garde aussi une forte influence sur la population Edo pour laquelle il a une nature semi-divine. Son palais se trouve dans la ville actuelle de Benin City (&amp;Eacute;tat d&amp;#39;Edo, Nigeria).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le premier Oba du Benin est Eweka, le fils d&amp;#39;Oranmiyan, un prince venu d&amp;#39;Ife qui d&amp;eacute;truisit la tyrannique dynastie des Ogisos qui r&amp;eacute;gnait depuis 35 g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rations sur le peuple Edo, et d&amp;#39;Ekinwide, une princesse Edo. Dans un premier temps le pouvoir restait au concile des chefs, le Uzama, avec l&amp;#39;Oba &amp;agrave; sa t&amp;ecirc;te. Sous le r&amp;egrave;gne d&amp;#39;Oba Ewedo, qui transf&amp;egrave;re la capitale &amp;agrave; Ubini, le pouvoir commence &amp;agrave; passer plus fermement entre les mains de l&amp;#39;Oba. &amp;Agrave; partir d&amp;#39;Oba Ewuare, son pouvoir devient absolu et le titre devient h&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;ditaire.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;Oba jouissait autrefois d&amp;#39;un tr&amp;egrave;s grand pouvoir et son titre rev&amp;ecirc;tait un caract&amp;egrave;re sacr&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;Oba du Benin au xvie si&amp;egrave;cle, gravure &amp;eacute;dit&amp;eacute; en 1815-1827&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Au xvie si&amp;egrave;cle, apparaissent ce que l&amp;#39;on appelle &amp;laquo; les rois guerriers &amp;raquo;. Le royaume a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; significativement agrandi durant le xvie si&amp;egrave;cle. D&amp;#39;ailleurs, cette importance soudaine de la guerre se traduisit dans l&amp;#39;art par une repr&amp;eacute;sentation massive de chefs de guerre, les nombreuses t&amp;ecirc;tes de bronze faisant office de troph&amp;eacute;es (voir ci-dessous). Les repr&amp;eacute;sentations figuratives associ&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; des &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments symboliques sont mises au service du pouvoir.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	D&amp;egrave;s 1486, des liens s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tablirent entre le Portugal et le B&amp;eacute;nin. La pr&amp;eacute;sence portugaise devint d&amp;#39;ailleurs un autre th&amp;egrave;me central de l&amp;#39;art au xvie si&amp;egrave;cle. L&amp;#39;art du B&amp;eacute;nin subit ainsi fortement l&amp;#39;influence du contact avec la culture europ&amp;eacute;enne. Par exemple, des tabourets sont cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute;s suivant le mod&amp;egrave;le europ&amp;eacute;en et on trouve des gravures et bronzes mettant en sc&amp;egrave;ne des Europ&amp;eacute;ens.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les XVIIe et xixe si&amp;egrave;cles sont, en revanche, marqu&amp;eacute;s de conflits internes et de mutations. L&amp;#39;expansion fulgurante du xvie si&amp;egrave;cle fut, en effet, suivie par un si&amp;egrave;cle de d&amp;eacute;centralisation. La puissance des riches dignitaires et des seigneurs de la guerre augmenta sensiblement tandis que l&amp;#39;Oba se vit peu &amp;agrave; peu cantonn&amp;eacute; dans un r&amp;ocirc;le uniquement spirituel et non plus politique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La culture Edo fut ensuite tr&amp;egrave;s marqu&amp;eacute;e par une exp&amp;eacute;dition punitive organis&amp;eacute;e par les Anglais le 18 f&amp;eacute;vrier 1897, la capitale tombant m&amp;ecirc;me entre leurs mains. Pr&amp;egrave;s de 2 400 objets provenant du tr&amp;eacute;sor royal de B&amp;eacute;nin furent rapport&amp;eacute;s en Angleterre et vendus aux ench&amp;egrave;res.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Plaque en laiton du xvie si&amp;egrave;cle repr&amp;eacute;sentant l&amp;#39;entr&amp;eacute;e du Palais du Oba du Benin. Photo prise au British Museum de Londres.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dans sa jeunesse, l&amp;#39;Oba est &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; par la reine-m&amp;egrave;re dans un palais &amp;agrave; quelques kilom&amp;egrave;tres de la capitale, loin des fracas de la cour.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le statut de Reine M&amp;egrave;re (Iyoba) a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute; au tout d&amp;eacute;but du XVIe si&amp;egrave;cle par Oba Esigie pour sa m&amp;egrave;re Idia. Elle avait l&amp;#39;une des charges politiques les plus importantes du royaume. Comme tous les dignitaires de la cour, l&amp;#39;Iyoba portait des perles de corail. Comme le prince h&amp;eacute;ritier, l&amp;#39;Iyoba jouissait d&amp;#39;un palais personnel, se trouvant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cart de celui de l&amp;#39;Oba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Parvenu &amp;agrave; la t&amp;ecirc;te de l&amp;#39;&amp;Eacute;tat, la vie de l&amp;#39;Oba est surtout rythm&amp;eacute;e par les innombrables c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monies et sacrifices rituels. Le reste de son temps est consacr&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; sa centaine d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pouses, alors que l&amp;#39;exercice quotidien du pouvoir dans les domaines militaire, &amp;eacute;conomique ou agricole est d&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; des conseillers. Le pouvoir &amp;eacute;tait organis&amp;eacute; par un syst&amp;egrave;me complexe de titres transmissibles par succession et de titres acquis.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;oba vit dans un immense palais en bois situ&amp;eacute; au centre de la ville. Les murs sont d&amp;eacute;cor&amp;eacute;s de plaques de laiton sculpt&amp;eacute;es.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La tradition raconte qu&amp;#39;au B&amp;eacute;nin la coutume &amp;eacute;tait de d&amp;eacute;capiter les rois vaincus. Leur t&amp;ecirc;te &amp;eacute;tait offerte &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;oba vainqueur qui la confiait aux artisans bronziers. Ceux-ci forgeaient alors deux r&amp;eacute;pliques de la t&amp;ecirc;te du roi vaincu : l&amp;#39;une conserv&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;oba et l&amp;#39;autre envoy&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; la tribu du roi vaincu pour rappeler et asseoir la sup&amp;eacute;riorit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;oba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cour[modifier]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le palais &amp;eacute;tait le centre g&amp;eacute;ographique, mais aussi politique et spirituel du royaume Edo. Ce palais abritait essentiellement le lieu de r&amp;eacute;sidence de l&amp;#39;oba, des lieux de r&amp;eacute;ception. On y trouvait &amp;eacute;galement des autels d&amp;eacute;di&amp;eacute;s aux anc&amp;ecirc;tres, des objets de rituels, pr&amp;eacute;cieux.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Seuls l&amp;#39;Oba et l&amp;#39;Iyoba pouvaient d&amp;eacute;poser des objets de bronze sur les autels ancestraux.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	(fr) Exposition B&amp;eacute;nin, cinq si&amp;egrave;cles d&amp;#39;art royal au Mus&amp;eacute;e du Quai Branly [1]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	(fr) Basil Davidson, Les royaumes africains, Time-Life, 1974&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Liste des obas du Benin&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Liste des Obas du Benin&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nom&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;R&amp;egrave;gne&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;R&amp;eacute;sidence&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Eweka I&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1180 - 1246&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;Ile Ibinu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Uwuakhuahen&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1246 - 1250&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Henmihen&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1250 - 1260&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ewedo&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1260 - 1274&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;Ubini&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Guola&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1274 - 1287&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Edoni&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1287 - 1292&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Udagbedo&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1292 - 1329&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ohen&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1329 - 1366&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Egbeka&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1366 - 1397&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Orobiru&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1397 - 1434&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Uwaifiokun&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1434 - 1440&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ewuare&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1440 - 1473&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;Edo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ezoti&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1473 - 1475&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Olua&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1475 - 1480&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ozolua&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1480 - 1504&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Esigie&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1504 - 1547&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Orhogbua&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1547 - 1580&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ehengbuda&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1580 - 1602&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ohuan&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1602 - 1656&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ohenzae&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1656 - 1661&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akenzae&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1661 - 1669&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akengboi&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1669 - 1675&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akenkbaye&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1675 - 1684&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akengbedo&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1684 - 1689&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ore-Oghene&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1689 - 1701&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ewuakpe&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1701 - 1712&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ozuere&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1712 - 1713&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akenzua I&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1713 - 1740&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Eresoyen&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1740 - 1750&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akengbuda&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1750 - 1804&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Obanosa&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1804 - 1816&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ogbebo&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1816 - 1816&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Osemwende&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1816 - 1848&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Adolo&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1848 - 1888&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ovonramwen Nogbaisi&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1888 - 1914&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Eweka II&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1914 - 1933&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;Edo (Benin City)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akenzua II&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1933 - 1978&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Erediauwa&lt;span class=&quot;Apple-tab-span&quot; style=&quot;white-space:pre&quot;&gt; &lt;/span&gt;1979 -&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 13 Jan 2012 08:38:31 GMT</pubDate>
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      <item>
         <title>Expo  MASTERPIECES</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FExpo%2B%2BMASTERPIECES-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,205,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,565.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;La galerie d&amp;#39;Art Primitif - L&amp;#39;Oeil et la Main, vous invite &amp;agrave; son vernissage de l&amp;#39;exposition MASTERPIECES pendant le Carr&amp;eacute; Rive Gauche&lt;br /&gt;Le Jeudi 26 Mai 2011 &amp;agrave; partir de 18h30&lt;br /&gt;Du jeudi 26 Mai au Jeudi 29 Septembre 2011</description>
         <pubDate>Tue, 07 Jun 2011 12:14:20 GMT</pubDate>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Yoruba</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Cno_article%2C574%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
         <description>Yoruba&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;em&gt;Exposition&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;( masques , statues ...)&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Tue, 09 Aug 2011 11:56:40 GMT</pubDate>
      </item>
      <item>
         <title>Presentation</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FPr%25C3%25A9sentation-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 10px; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 24px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 9px; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(255, 0, 0);&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 16px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 10px; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(255, 0, 0);&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 10px; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 12px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;	&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;text-align: center; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;meta content=&quot;text/html; charset=UTF-8&quot; http-equiv=&quot;Content-Type&quot; /&gt;&lt;meta content=&quot;text/css&quot; http-equiv=&quot;Content-Style-Type&quot; /&gt;&lt;title&gt;&lt;/title&gt;&lt;meta content=&quot;Cocoa HTML Writer&quot; name=&quot;Generator&quot; /&gt;&lt;meta content=&quot;1038.35&quot; name=&quot;CocoaVersion&quot; /&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: justify;&quot;&gt;	&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;		&lt;p&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;			&lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;p.p1 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; text-align: center; font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman'}p.p2 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; text-align: center; font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman'; min-height: 15.0px}p.p3 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman'}p.p4 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; font: 14.0px 'Times New Roman'; min-height: 16.0px}p.p5 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; font: 14.0px 'Times New Roman'}p.p6 {margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px; font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman'; min-height: 15.0px}span.s1 {font: 16.0px 'Times New Roman'}span.s2 {font: 14.0px 'Times New Roman'}			&lt;/style&gt;			&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p1&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;DOGON ART&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p1&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p2&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p2&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p2&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Dominating from the XIVth century the Bandiagra&amp;#39;s cliffs, in Malia, DOGON initiated&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;a very old artistic production. Line and&amp;nbsp; shape&amp;#39;s style is the main criterion to show power&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;of rites organising their society. Each work is a deep representation of cosmogony structuring&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;daily life.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p4&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p5&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;A single cosmogony&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p6&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;As a patriarcal society, all professions have a ritual meaning according to God Amma and&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;his eight ancestors. DOGON or HEBBE means &amp;laquo;&amp;nbsp; pagan&amp;nbsp;&amp;raquo;, who refuses to agree to Islam.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Amma looked like an egg, DOGON statues have always an ovoid head to make shown its&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;religious and initiation value.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;The eight ancestors are associated to a profession and a colour:&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Black smith and potter : red and blue&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Farmer : white and green&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Sculptor : orange&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Speaker : green mill&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p6&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;s1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;,&amp;nbsp; managing Director at gallery&amp;nbsp;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;s2&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&amp;laquo;&amp;nbsp; L&amp;#39;oeil et la main&amp;nbsp;&amp;raquo;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt; choosed to present&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;for this exhibition a DOGON&amp;#39;s maternity.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;This choice to show how, even if maternity has the meaning of fertility, it is also full of&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;symbols and&amp;nbsp; sacred&amp;nbsp; characters evocating the powerfull world of spirits.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Threw these representations sculpture delicacy and DOGON patina underline its power.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p6&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;DOGON Maternity&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Malia &amp;ndash; wood- old patina&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;Maternity represents a woman sitting on a stool, very delicately sculpted, and keep her&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;child on knees. Chil tries to hold on her bosom.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;A solemn expression&amp;nbsp; and full of dignity mother&amp;#39;s expression givest to this work an intense&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;dimension much more than showing daily life : cosmic energy emanating of this DOGON&amp;nbsp;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p class=&quot;p3&quot;&gt;			&lt;span style=&quot;font-size:18px;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:arial,helvetica,sans-serif;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#ffffff;&quot;&gt;&lt;font class=&quot;Apple-style-span&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;b&gt;creation.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;The art gallery L&amp;#39;Oeil et la Main, located at Paris, is essentially devoted to &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/index-code_ISO_langue-en-page-55.html&quot;&gt;primitive arts&lt;/a&gt;. To come at the gallery, an access plan is available in the category &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/index-page-44.html&quot;&gt;Access&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. If you wish to receive informations about the coming exhibition by email, please leave us your email adress in the category &amp;quot;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/FormulaireInscriptionNewsletter.html&quot;&gt;Subscription to the newsletter&lt;/a&gt;&amp;quot;. This site is dedicated to the collectors. It was created by collectors for collectors. Our collections include works of art of the highest quality, but also more modest ethnic objects. Don&amp;#39;t hesitate to contact us for any remarks or suggestions, we are always interested in the possible observations concerning the objects presented, not only because errors of attribution cannot be completely avoided, but also because the general knowledge is always built from multiple knowledge of each one. If you have the possibility of it, don&amp;#39;t hesitate to visit us at the gallery at 41 rue de Verneuil, behind the Orsay museum. The constitution of a collection requires a lot of time and some sacrifices, then you must arm yourself with patience.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	The traditional african art, formerly called &amp;ldquo;negro art&amp;rdquo;, is subdivided into a multitude of local arts. For international museums have neglected african art for a long time, the majority of the works of art are as a result in the hands of private collectors and dealers. After the african countries&amp;#39; independences, many Europeans had come back in Europe with important collections, and gradually their collections fed the markets and the auctions. Objects The true passion for african art must in certain cases respect the object in its integrity, which thus means for example to accept the existence - without being impressed - of a layer of dried blood (sacrificial crust) collected during the ritual sacrifices. According to some collectors, the traces left by the use confer to these objects a magic aesthetic power that the others do not have. Among the african functional objects, one can also find everyday objects such as pulleys, locks of granaries, ladders, water-bottles pyrographed and weapons, personal objects (headstock of maternity, fetish), but also objects like decorative statues carved for the villas of the white people in the 1950&amp;#39;s and 1960&amp;#39;s, or like naive shops signs. These objects are &amp;quot;imitations&amp;rdquo; for the purists and &amp;ldquo;ethnos&amp;rdquo; for those who denigrate them, but these items, which have acquired patina, show things, often very beautiful and touching. For example the statues known as &amp;ldquo;colonists&amp;rdquo; are the image of the white man seen by the black man, and are often objects full of humour and of drolery (tropical helmet, gun with the belt, hands in the pockets). However, the today imitations make devastations, because in many african villages the craftsmen became masters in the art of patinate, all the more reason that, according to the experts it has become impossible to find a major work of art on the continent today. All is already in Europe, in the collectors (like the inhabitant of Brussels Willy Mestach), in the former colonists&amp;#39; families, or in the american museums. Because it became hard to find a ritual object, there are many robberies relating to these objects.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	The african governments of their side let make because they do not demonstrate a lot of interest for the market of Africain art and avoid it, while a resolution appraise by the UNESCO forbid, since the beginning of 1990s, to get outside masks and statues of the african continent. But in facts, neither the UNESCO, nor the african governments have means to confine hemorrhage and to protect this heritage. More certain criticisms rose against such measure with as sales talk to say: &amp;laquo; Nothing forbids the Europeans, the Americans or the Japanese to sell their writings abroad or to buy it. Why would this right be forbidden the Africans? &amp;raquo; Africa stays, however, a natural artistic deposit of major importance, because throughout of this vast continent, there is thousands of tombs millenniums packaging, still, dozens thousand objects to be discovered. Some african museums, States of which have neither means nor will to undertake body searches, try to get organized and to offer to the traders of coeducational or joint body searches with as purpose to keep the most special rooms, and at least to be able to be interested in sales of the collected objects, to have means to implement a true policy of acquisition.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;	Today african art is a bottomless mine of inspiration for the creators who re-interpret it, but &amp;laquo; &lt;span style=&quot;font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;out of its middle, withdrawn from its context, not only geographical but also social, the object loses its cultural identity. (...) The panoply of the &amp;quot;colonial&amp;quot; in the wall of the &amp;quot;collector&amp;quot; linked today to contemporary art, they tend to forget the relation of the Africain object with its middle of origin, forgetting of obvious ethnological involvement&lt;/span&gt; &amp;raquo;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Mon, 28 Aug 2006 06:23:43 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Georges-Henri Rivière</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Cno_article%2C259%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,155,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,259.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;p&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 11px; color: rgb(115, 115, 115); margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 5px; font-family: Arial; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: center; &quot;&gt;	&lt;b&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;PARIS - JOSEPHINE BAKER - GEORGES-HENRI RIVIERE Joséphine Baker (1906-1975), artiste de music-hall et Georges-Henri Rivière (1897-1985), ethnographe français, au musée ethnographique du Trocadéro. Paris, juin 1933. LIP-6259-052&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/PARISJOSEPHINEBAKER.png&quot; style=&quot;width: 602px; height: 648px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 11px; color: rgb(115, 115, 115); text-align: right; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 5px; font-family: Arial; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); &quot;&gt;	&lt;b&gt;PARIS - JOSEPHINE BAKER - GEORGES-HENRI RIVIERE&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 11px; color: rgb(115, 115, 115); text-align: right; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 5px; font-family: Arial; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); &quot;&gt;	Jos&amp;eacute;phine Baker (1906-1975), artiste de music-hall et Georges-Henri Rivi&amp;egrave;re (1897-1985), ethnographe fran&amp;ccedil;ais, au mus&amp;eacute;e ethnographique du Trocad&amp;eacute;ro. Paris, juin 1933. LIP-6259-052&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 11px; color: rgb(115, 115, 115); margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 5px; font-family: Arial; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255); text-align: center; &quot;&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;Portrait de Thérèse Rivière © musée du quai Branly, photo Jacques Faublée&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/Riviere-PhotodeJ.Faubleesmall05.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 750px; height: 766px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(170, 170, 170); font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 9px; line-height: 13px; text-align: left; &quot;&gt;Portrait de Th&amp;eacute;r&amp;egrave;se Rivi&amp;egrave;re &amp;copy; mus&amp;eacute;e du quai Branly, photo Jacques Faubl&amp;eacute;e&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 13px; text-align: left; &quot;&gt;Soeur de Georges-Henri Rivi&amp;egrave;re,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 13px; text-align: left; &quot;&gt;Th&amp;eacute;r&amp;egrave;se Rivi&amp;egrave;re&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 13px; text-align: left; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;part en mission en Alg&amp;eacute;rie, de 1934-1936, avec&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;strong style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: verdana, sans-serif; line-height: 13px; text-align: left; &quot;&gt;Germaine Tillion&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Georges-Henri Rivi&amp;egrave;re (5 juin 1897, Paris - 24 mars 1985, Louveciennes est le fondateur du Mus&amp;eacute;e des arts et traditions populaires &amp;agrave; Paris. Surnomm&amp;eacute; le magicien des vitrines, il a jou&amp;eacute; un r&amp;ocirc;le important dans la nouvelle vague mus&amp;eacute;ographique, et dans le d&amp;eacute;veloppement des mus&amp;eacute;es d&amp;#39;ethnographie &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;chelle mondiale, au sein de l&amp;#39;International council of museums.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;N&amp;eacute; le 5 juin 1897, &amp;agrave; Paris, &amp;eacute;tudie la musique jusqu&amp;#39;en 1925, prend le go&amp;ucirc;t des mus&amp;eacute;es en suivant, de 1925 &amp;agrave; 1928, les cours de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cole du Louvre puis devient conservateur de la collection David Weill. Il r&amp;eacute;organise le mus&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;Ethnographie du Trocad&amp;eacute;ro, qui deviendra le Mus&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;Homme. Sous la direction de Paul Rivet, il y pr&amp;eacute;sente quelque 70 expositions de 1928 &amp;agrave; 1937.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;De 1937 &amp;agrave; 1967, il invente, con&amp;ccedil;oit et r&amp;eacute;alise le Mus&amp;eacute;e des arts et traditions populaires qu&amp;#39;il parvient &amp;agrave; installer sur son site actuel, en bordure du bois de Boulogne. Il y d&amp;eacute;veloppera une mus&amp;eacute;ographie r&amp;eacute;volutionnaire et en assurera le couronnement scientifique par la cr&amp;eacute;ation du Centre d&amp;#39;Ethnologie Fran&amp;ccedil;aise. Grand d&amp;eacute;couvreur de talents, meneur d&amp;#39;hommes, il joue un r&amp;ocirc;le essentiel dans la fondation de l&amp;#39;ICOM (Conseil International des mus&amp;eacute;es) et dans l&amp;#39;invention du concept d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;comus&amp;eacute;e. Environnement, pluridisciplinarit&amp;eacute;, furent ses id&amp;eacute;es ma&amp;icirc;tresses sur lesquelles furent fond&amp;eacute;es, entre autres, les Recherches Coop&amp;eacute;ratives sur Programme d&amp;#39;Aubrac et du Ch&amp;acirc;tillonnais dans les ann&amp;eacute;es 1960. M&amp;ecirc;me &amp;agrave; la fin de sa vie, il ne cessera de conseiller, d&amp;#39;innover et de dynamiser ceux qui poursuivaient son &amp;oelig;uvre.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;p&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;african art / art africain / primitive art / art primitif / arts premiers / art gallery / art tribal / tribal art / l&amp;#39;oeil et la main / galerie d&amp;#39;art premier / Agalom / Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre / www.african-paris.com / www.agalom.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Sat, 28 Mar 2009 14:21:23 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Le Bwame  du Léopard des Babembe  (Kivu-Congo)</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FLe%2BBwame%2B%2Bdu%2BL%25C3%25A9opard%2Bdes%2BBabembe%2B%2B%2528Kivu-Congo%2529-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe1.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 700px; height: 1278px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pol Pierre Gossiaux&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Titulaire de la Chaire&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	d&amp;rsquo;Anthropologie des syst&amp;egrave;mes symboliques&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	et d&amp;rsquo;Ethnos&amp;eacute;miologie de l&amp;rsquo;Art africain&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge (Belgium)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	PP.Gossiaux@ulg.ac.be&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le Bwame &amp;nbsp;du L&amp;eacute;opard&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	des&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Babembe &amp;nbsp;(Kivu-Congo)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Rituel initiatique et rituel fun&amp;eacute;raire&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Avec 52 illustrations&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 2&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Table des mati&amp;egrave;res (1&amp;egrave;re partie)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Avant dire. Pr&amp;eacute;sentation du Bwam&amp;egrave; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	3&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fondements de l&amp;rsquo;anthropologie&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	et de l&amp;rsquo;ethnos&amp;eacute;miologie bembe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	10&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exorciser l&amp;rsquo;animal&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fondements du savoir bembe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	15&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux et la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	25&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux qui transitent&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux du Bwam&amp;egrave;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	34&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;lsquo;Engwe, le L&amp;eacute;opard (Panthera pardus LINNE)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	41&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	45&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;rsquo;initiation au Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa &amp;lsquo;engwe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; 49&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le rituel de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	64&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pourquoi &amp;ecirc;tre L&amp;eacute;opard. Les fun&amp;eacute;railles ou &amp;laquo; Le Jour &amp;raquo; &amp;lsquo;ahibi&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	75&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le p&amp;eacute;ch&amp;eacute; originel ou le cycle de la queue&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;87&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Notes&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;101&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Citations possibles de cet article, selon les normes scientifiques et l&amp;eacute;gales en usage. Toute reproduction, compl&amp;egrave;te ou partielle, d&amp;rsquo;un document photographique doit faire l&amp;rsquo;objet d&amp;rsquo;une demande &amp;eacute;crite (m&amp;eacute;l) &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;auteur.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	3&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;A&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Ekunda Kunda (&amp;dagger;)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Mwami wa &amp;#39;engwe.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cet article, r&amp;eacute;dig&amp;eacute; en 1999 pour le Colloque d&amp;rsquo;histoire des connaissances zoologiques (11), consacr&amp;eacute; aux Animaux que l&amp;rsquo;homme choisit d&amp;rsquo;inhumer (Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge, 20 mars 1999) dont lesActes ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;dit&amp;eacute;s par Liliane Bodson (Li&amp;egrave;ge, ULg, 2000, pp.169-269), a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; relu pour cette version num&amp;eacute;rique. Nous y avons apport&amp;eacute; les corrections n&amp;eacute;cessaires et ajout&amp;eacute; quelques pr&amp;eacute;cisions.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En compl&amp;eacute;ment, l&amp;rsquo;on pourra lire, ult&amp;eacute;rieurement, sur le site http://www.anthroposys.be :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Le meurtre rituel des Hommes - Serpents du Bwam&amp;egrave; du L&amp;eacute;opard des Babembe (Sud-Kivu). &amp;nbsp;Sacrifice et subincision.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Histoire et &amp;nbsp;fonctions &amp;nbsp;politico - religieuse du Bwam&amp;egrave; des Babembe du Sud Kivu, de 1860 &amp;agrave; 2000.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;L&amp;rsquo;Art du Bwam&amp;egrave; des Babembe du Sud Kivu.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Rites et masques de circoncision Biluba bya Butende des Babembe du Sud-Kivu.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Plusieurs articles sur les rites initiatiques et les autres sectes secr&amp;egrave;tes traditionnelles bembe (&amp;lsquo;Alunga, &amp;lsquo;Elanda, M&amp;rsquo;mhu&amp;rsquo;i, etc.) sont &amp;eacute;galement en voie d&amp;rsquo;ach&amp;egrave;vement.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le pr&amp;eacute;sent article, &amp;nbsp;est fond&amp;eacute; pour l&amp;rsquo;essentiel sur des donn&amp;eacute;es de terrain, recueillies lors d&amp;#39;une enqu&amp;ecirc;te poursuivie de 1970 &amp;agrave; 1974 (avec neuf retours sur les lieux, chacun de deux mois). Une partie des &amp;nbsp;entretiens &amp;nbsp;qui entrent dans cette base de donn&amp;eacute;es a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; enr&amp;eacute;gistr&amp;eacute;e sur bandes et cassettes magn&amp;eacute;tiques (plusieurs centaines). Nous &amp;nbsp;avons &amp;eacute;galement eu acc&amp;egrave;s &amp;agrave; plusieurs fonds d&amp;rsquo;archives &amp;ndash;de valeur in&amp;eacute;gale (Uvira, Bukavu, Kisangani, Kinshasa, Tervuren. Fonds priv&amp;eacute;s). Certaines des archives AIMO sont conserv&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la Biblioth&amp;egrave;que Africaine du Minist&amp;egrave;re des Affaires Etrang&amp;egrave;res de Bruxelles.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;4&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Note linguistique :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	C se prononce toujours tsch (v. &amp;laquo; tch&amp;egrave;que &amp;raquo;). Cwecwe = Tsw&amp;eacute;tshw&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	J se prononce toujours dj (v.djinn).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	H fricative gutturale sourde est toujours dur, v. ach-laut allemand, jota espagnol ou xh du wallon li&amp;eacute;geois (pas d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;quivalent fran&amp;ccedil;ais). &amp;nbsp;Nhabo se dira plut&amp;ocirc;t n&amp;rsquo;kabo que n&amp;rsquo;nabo.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	E se prononce toujours &amp;eacute; (v. &amp;laquo; n&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;). Ine (moi) = in&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	U toujours ou &amp;nbsp;(v. &amp;laquo; tout &amp;raquo;). Sungula = soungoula.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Ugrave; restitue un phon&amp;egrave;me interm&amp;eacute;diaire entre ou et o ferm&amp;eacute;. Pas d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;quivalent fran&amp;ccedil;ais mais &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga &amp;nbsp;se lira plut&amp;ocirc;t Alau ounga qu&amp;rsquo; Alounga&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Egrave; est un phon&amp;egrave;me interm&amp;eacute;diaire entre i et e ferm&amp;eacute;, sans &amp;eacute;quivalent fran&amp;ccedil;ais, mais proche du phon&amp;egrave;me &amp;egrave; dans th&amp;egrave;me. &amp;nbsp;bwam&amp;egrave; se lira plut&amp;ocirc;t bwam&amp;egrave; que bwami.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il n&amp;rsquo;y a pas de nasalisation. Bantu = ban&amp;rsquo; tou.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nous n&amp;#39;avons pas cru utile, ici, de noter les ton&amp;egrave;mes. Par contre, &amp;nbsp;l&amp;#39;&amp;egrave;bembe, langue bantoue, &amp;eacute;tant une langue &amp;agrave; pr&amp;eacute;fixes, le lecteur s&amp;#39;attendra &amp;agrave; voir ceux-ci varier selon la classe et le nombre du radical auxquels ils se rapportent. Les apostrophes &amp;rsquo; et &amp;lsquo; indiquent des phon&amp;egrave;mes qui ne se prononcent pas, mais qui interdisent l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;lision entre sons (voyelles et/ou consonnes) ainsi rapproch&amp;eacute;s. M&amp;rsquo;ma, par exemple, d&amp;eacute;rive de mulema, m&amp;rsquo;m&amp;rsquo;u&amp;rsquo;i de mutumbi. Une phrase bembe est donc hach&amp;eacute;e de silences, dont les nuances, variables selon le contexte phon&amp;eacute;tique (ils paraissent tant&amp;ocirc;t aspir&amp;eacute;s, tant&amp;ocirc;t expir&amp;eacute;s), nous semblent impossibles &amp;agrave; d&amp;eacute;crire ici.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	5&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En entreprenant la r&amp;eacute;daction de cet essai, notre intention &amp;eacute;tait de d&amp;eacute;crire le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial traditionnel des fun&amp;eacute;railles des Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards (Bam&amp;egrave; ba &amp;rsquo;ngwe) bembe, sans m&amp;ecirc;me &amp;eacute;voquer, sinon fugitivement, le parcours initiatique qui conf&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; ces derniers leur statut singulier. Toutefois, une intuition nous portait &amp;agrave; croire que les rituels fun&amp;eacute;raires dont l&amp;#39;homme avait parfois honor&amp;eacute; certains animaux, relevaient d&amp;#39;une logique qui n&amp;rsquo;entendait pas rapprocher, sans plus, l&amp;#39;animal de l&amp;#39;homme dans la mort, mais visait peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, dans certains cas, &amp;agrave; m&amp;eacute;tamorphoser l&amp;rsquo;animal en homme. C&amp;#39;est en effet la raison m&amp;ecirc;me du c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;mo&amp;shy;nial qui livre l&amp;#39;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;agrave; la mort. Pour permettre au lecteur du pr&amp;eacute;sent article de v&amp;eacute;rifier cette intuition, il importait de montrer clairement que l&amp;#39;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard ne l&amp;#39;est pas de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;nbsp;m&amp;eacute;taphorique, mais qu&amp;#39;il l&amp;#39;est r&amp;eacute;ellement, du moins dans sa propre r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; - la seule qui doit compter au regard de l&amp;#39;anthropologue. Or c&amp;#39;est ce qu&amp;#39;un lecteur, m&amp;ecirc;me averti, ne peut savoir. Les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s d&amp;#39;Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards (d&amp;#39;Hommes-lions, crocodiles, singes, serpents, porcs-&amp;eacute;pics, etc.), rep&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es d&amp;egrave;s le 17e si&amp;egrave;cle, se retrouvent un peu partout en Afrique centrale. Elles n&amp;rsquo;ont aucune relation entre elles, m&amp;ecirc;me si elles partagent peut-&amp;ecirc;tre une logique analogue et poss&amp;egrave;dent des racines historiques communes. &amp;nbsp;Durant la p&amp;eacute;riode coloniale, les &amp;laquo; crimes &amp;raquo; &amp;nbsp;des Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards, en particulier, ont suscit&amp;eacute; une importante litt&amp;eacute;rature. Pour l&amp;#39;essen&amp;shy;tiel, celle-ci &amp;eacute;tait le fait de magistrats ou d&amp;#39;administrateurs qui avaient eu l&amp;#39;occasion d&amp;#39;interroger les coupables - tous singuli&amp;egrave;rement muets - avant de les condamner, pour la plupart, &amp;agrave; la peine capitale. Ces magistrats conclurent g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement de leurs enqu&amp;ecirc;tes que les Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards ne se d&amp;eacute;guisaient en fauves (ce que ne font pas les Babembe) que dans le seul but de d&amp;eacute;tourner d&amp;#39;eux les soup&amp;ccedil;ons et qu&amp;#39;en aucun cas, ces criminels (souvent d&amp;eacute;crits comme de simples &amp;laquo; tueurs &amp;agrave; gages &amp;raquo;) ne s&amp;#39;identifiaient &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;animal dont les oripeaux leur servaient de masque. Peu satisfaits de ces explications, somme toute rassurantes, certains ethnologues &amp;eacute;bauch&amp;egrave;rent de mani&amp;egrave;re un peu confuse des explica&amp;shy;tions qui se r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;raient pour la plupart aux th&amp;eacute;ories du tot&amp;eacute;misme - celles de Frazer, en particulier -, que l&amp;#39;on ne saurait plus accepter comme telles apr&amp;egrave;s la critique qu&amp;#39;en a faites Cl. L&amp;eacute;vi-Strauss et d&amp;rsquo;autres. (Voyez aussi la n. 19).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;L&amp;#39;on &amp;eacute;tait loin, dans tous les cas, des ph&amp;eacute;nom&amp;egrave;nes si complexes que j&amp;#39;avais pu observer et &amp;eacute;tudier pendant de longues ann&amp;eacute;es (depuis 1969) en Afrique, notamment chez les Babembe et aussi, de mani&amp;egrave;re beaucoup plus fugitive, les Mituku, les Bambole et les Baha.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	6&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pour mesurer la force, la conviction avec laquelle l&amp;#39;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard adh&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; son identit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;animal, au point de se prendre r&amp;eacute;ellement pour le f&amp;eacute;lin &amp;laquo; sacr&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;, il nous fallait d&amp;eacute;crire tout le rituel de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose - ou de l&amp;#39;initiation. Nous l&amp;#39;avons fait aussi succinctement que possible - comptant y revenir plus longuement un jour. Avant d&amp;#39;acc&amp;eacute;der au titre supr&amp;ecirc;me d&amp;#39; &amp;rsquo;Engwe (l&amp;eacute;opard), l&amp;#39;initi&amp;eacute; doit passer par une s&amp;eacute;rie de phases pr&amp;eacute;liminaires, dont l&amp;#39;ordre est codifi&amp;eacute;, o&amp;ugrave; il doit s&amp;#39;approprier l&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;un animal, chaque fois diff&amp;eacute;rent. Ces initiations successives assurent sa confusion, puis sa m&amp;eacute;tamor&amp;shy;phose en l&amp;eacute;opard. Pour comprendre les raisons du choix des animaux dont les initi&amp;eacute;s investissent progressivement la forme et l&amp;#39;essence, il importait de d&amp;eacute;crire sommairement la logique qui pr&amp;eacute;side &amp;agrave; la pens&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;animal, chez les Babembe, et r&amp;eacute;git leurs taxinomies. L&amp;#39;on verra que cette pens&amp;eacute;e ordonne toute leur compr&amp;eacute;hension de l&amp;#39;univers, leur ontologie, leur m&amp;eacute;taphysique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Enfin, la question la plus &amp;eacute;nigmatique de toutes : &amp;laquo; Pourquoi vouloir vivre en l&amp;eacute;opard ? &amp;raquo; ne cessait de hanter nos enqu&amp;ecirc;tes. Elle se posait avec d&amp;#39;autant plus de force que les Babembe, comme tant d&amp;#39;autres peuples, tirent l&amp;#39;un des principes fondamentaux de leur identit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;ordre des diff&amp;eacute;rences qui les opposent au monde animal. Notre article s&amp;#39;ouvre donc sur une br&amp;egrave;ve description de l&amp;#39;anthropologie des Babembe - laquelle s&amp;#39;apparente &amp;agrave; une strat&amp;eacute;gie visant &amp;agrave; exorciser l&amp;#39;animal de leur territoire symbolique. Quant &amp;agrave; la r&amp;eacute;ponse &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;nigme, elle ne se livre, pr&amp;eacute;cis&amp;eacute;ment, que dans le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial mortuaire de l&amp;#39;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe2.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 187px; height: 300px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span _fck_bookmark=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;display: none; &quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 0. Insigne de Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;engwe. Bois. Perles vertes. R&amp;eacute;sine. Charges magiques.Enduits rituels. M&amp;rsquo;muse (h&amp;eacute;matite Fe 2 O3) Ht. 38 mm (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	7&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Le probl&amp;egrave;me que pose le sacrifice rituel des rois sacr&amp;eacute;s - et maudits -, auquel Frazer a consacr&amp;eacute; son Rameau d&amp;#39;or, interroge ici des solutions ou des hypoth&amp;egrave;ses inattendues. Bien que notre propos soit d&amp;#39;inviter le lecteur aux r&amp;ecirc;ves chatoyants des comparaisons, nous pensons que ces hypoth&amp;egrave;&amp;shy;ses ne pourraient &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;eacute;tendues &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres univers culturels qu&amp;#39;avec prudence. La pens&amp;eacute;e sauvage est sans doute la chose du monde la mieux partag&amp;eacute;e. Mais chaque culture en tire des constructions propres, originales, qui rec&amp;egrave;lent un tr&amp;eacute;sor unique : les &amp;laquo; invariants &amp;nbsp;anthropologiques &amp;raquo; &amp;nbsp;rel&amp;egrave;vent de sp&amp;eacute;culations &amp;nbsp;scolastiques - suspectes - &amp;agrave; moins de s&amp;rsquo;en tenir &amp;agrave; de simples structures gnos&amp;eacute;ologiques.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe3.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1172px; height: 1177px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ILL 1a. Carte linguistique du Congo Belge (1954) de G. van Bulck (Atlas g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ral du Congo. (I.R.C.B). Encadr&amp;eacute;e en rouge : situation de la carte suivante.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Segment&amp;eacute;e en une trentaine de clans (mioka) ou sous-clans, d&amp;#39;origine lega, cwa et nyindu, qui ont assimil&amp;eacute;, &amp;agrave; des degr&amp;eacute;s divers, des groupements plus anciens d&amp;#39;origine culturelle diff&amp;eacute;rente (b&amp;ugrave;y&amp;ugrave;, zoba, sanze, nhoma, kunda, etc.), la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; des Babembe du Kivu1 ne s&amp;#39;est jamais constitu&amp;eacute;e en entit&amp;eacute; politique unifi&amp;eacute;e sous l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;un pouvoir central. La relative coh&amp;eacute;rence de la culture bembe, la d&amp;eacute;finition de ses r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rences identitaires, rel&amp;egrave;vent de processus d&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;gration dont nous ne songeons pas &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;voquer ici la complexit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	8&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe4.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 650px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ILL. 1b. Carte de l&amp;rsquo;Ubembe Sud-Kivu &amp;nbsp;et r&amp;eacute;gions voisines (voir n.1 et n. 18).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes, en nombre tr&amp;egrave;s &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;2, o&amp;ugrave; les fronti&amp;egrave;res claniques et culturelles &amp;eacute;taient partiellement abolies, ont form&amp;eacute; sans doute l&amp;#39;un des terrains majeurs de l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;gration des croyances, des rites et de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thique bembe3.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	De toutes ces soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s, la plus importante est celle du Bwam&amp;egrave;4. Elle regroupe, par clan, les membres masculins5 des familles les plus prestigieuses par leur ascendance ou leurs richesses. Sa fonction principale est de veiller au maintien des traditions et des lois mi&amp;#39;a&amp;#39;e, &amp;agrave; pr&amp;eacute;server la paix et l&amp;#39;harmonie au sein d&amp;#39;un m&amp;ecirc;me groupe agnatique b&amp;ugrave;longo ou entre les clans mioka (ou leurs segments &amp;nbsp;bib&amp;ugrave;nd&amp;egrave;) rivaux ou hostiles6. &amp;laquo; Conseil des sages &amp;raquo;, le Bwam&amp;egrave; contr&amp;ocirc;lait donc l&amp;#39;exercice du pouvoir politique qui revenait aux a&amp;icirc;n&amp;eacute;s ba&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;la, quand il ne le d&amp;eacute;tenait pas lui-m&amp;ecirc;me. Il tranchait en dernier recours les palabres les plus complexes. Il avait le pouvoir d&amp;#39;inter&amp;shy;rompre les guerres entre clans rivaux. Il organisait les grands rituels collectifs - tel le B&amp;ugrave;tende (circoncision). Enfin, il commandait certaines des activit&amp;eacute;s des autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes (en particulier, celles d&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;Elanda et d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga auxquelles, du reste, ses membres &amp;eacute;taient eux-m&amp;ecirc;mes souvent initi&amp;eacute;s), et &amp;nbsp;veillait &amp;nbsp;&amp;agrave; ce que ces derni&amp;egrave;res ne d&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;n&amp;egrave;rent et n&amp;#39;engendrent le d&amp;eacute;sordre. M&amp;eacute;diateurs, arbitres et juges, les Bam&amp;egrave; disposaient de moyens th&amp;eacute;oriquement illimit&amp;eacute;s pour que leurs sentences fussent ex&amp;eacute;cut&amp;eacute;es. La magie (b&amp;ugrave;t&amp;egrave;&amp;egrave;) n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait pas le moindre de leurs moyens. C&amp;#39;est pourquoi les Bam&amp;egrave;, tout en s&amp;#39;affirmant comme les ma&amp;icirc;tres de l&amp;#39;ordre et de l&amp;#39;harmonie sociale, &amp;eacute;taient &amp;eacute;galement les sorciers les plus redout&amp;eacute;s de tous ceux de l&amp;#39;Ubembe7. Une crainte temp&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;e, cependant, par le fait qu&amp;rsquo;ils &amp;eacute;taient &amp;eacute;galement r&amp;eacute;put&amp;eacute;s comme des th&amp;eacute;rapeutes (bab&amp;ugrave;i ba bicimba) d&amp;eacute;tenteurs d&amp;rsquo;une forme de thaumaturgie &amp;agrave; laquelle le recours s&amp;rsquo;imposait lorsque la m&amp;eacute;decine des autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes avait &amp;eacute;chou&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	9&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; du Bwam&amp;egrave; est structur&amp;eacute;e par une hi&amp;eacute;rarchie de grades qui diff&amp;egrave;rent d&amp;#39;un clan &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre, mais qui, pour la plupart, sont d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute;s par des noms d&amp;#39;animaux : le premier de ces grades, dans le sens ascendant, est celui de Pinji (ch&amp;egrave;vre noire), le grade supr&amp;ecirc;me celui de &amp;rsquo;Engwe : le L&amp;eacute;opard. L&amp;#39;on y reviendra. Ces titres n&amp;#39;ont pas seulement la valeur d&amp;#39;un symbole ou d&amp;#39;une m&amp;eacute;taphore : l&amp;#39;initi&amp;eacute; Mwam&amp;egrave; entend s&amp;#39;assimiler &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;animal dont il porte le nom et les Ba&amp;rsquo;ngwe (&amp;laquo; Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards &amp;raquo;) finissent par se dire dans l&amp;#39;impossibilit&amp;eacute; de distinguer encore ce qui rel&amp;egrave;ve en eux de l&amp;#39;homme et de l&amp;#39;animal dont ils assurent investir la forme et ses multiples anamorphoses8.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe5.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 332px; height: 508px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 01. M&amp;ecirc;me objet (p. 6). Vu de trois-quart.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	(&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	10&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fondements de l&amp;rsquo;anthropologie&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	et de l&amp;rsquo;ethnos&amp;eacute;miologie bembe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La logique de l&amp;#39;initiation au Bwam&amp;egrave;, qui tend &amp;agrave; assurer la confusion de l&amp;#39;animal et de l&amp;#39;homme, sinon leur m&amp;eacute;tamorphose absolue, semble d&amp;#39;autant plus &amp;eacute;nigmatique que la culture bembe repose sur un ensemble de strat&amp;eacute;gies identitaires qui visent &amp;agrave; exorciser l&amp;#39;animal du territoire de l&amp;#39;homme, &amp;agrave; affirmer sans cesse la diff&amp;eacute;rence de leur champ taxinomique et ontologique, sans doute parce que les Babembe, qui accordent volontiers &amp;agrave; de nombreux animaux des dons surnaturels et des facult&amp;eacute;s communes aux hommes, sont conscients de la fragilit&amp;eacute; et des mouvances de cette lisi&amp;egrave;re logique o&amp;ugrave; les concepts de nature et de culture9 ont tendance &amp;agrave; se dissoudre.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exorciser l&amp;#39;animal&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ces strat&amp;eacute;gies sont discursives ou symboliques. Elles expliquent &amp;eacute;gale&amp;shy;ment de nombreux choix culturels et se d&amp;eacute;ploient dans les rituels les plus importants des Babembe. Nous n&amp;#39;en donnerons ici que quelques exemples.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;on sait que l&amp;#39;enqu&amp;ecirc;te de terrain se heurte r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement &amp;agrave; des r&amp;eacute;ponses qui se bornent &amp;agrave; mettre en valeur la tradition, la force des coutumes (mishinga ya bashi &amp;rsquo;ul&amp;ugrave;ca), le poids des r&amp;egrave;gles et de l&amp;#39;exemple, etc. Toutefois, lorsqu&amp;#39;on interroge les Babembe sur les raisons qui les incitent &amp;agrave; se v&amp;ecirc;tir, par exemple, &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;piler ou - autrefois - &amp;agrave; se tatouer, ils r&amp;eacute;pondent spontan&amp;eacute;ment qu&amp;#39;ils entendent ainsi marquer ce qui les s&amp;eacute;pare de l&amp;#39;animal. C&amp;rsquo;est pour la m&amp;ecirc;me raison, affirment-ils, que rien ne les contraindrait &amp;agrave; commettre l&amp;#39;inceste10, alors que celui-ci est de r&amp;egrave;gle chez l&amp;#39;animal : &amp;laquo; un chien qui joue avec sa fille, rel&amp;egrave;vent-ils, finit toujours par coucher avec elle &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;un des rituels collectifs qui mobilisaient la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; bembe tout enti&amp;egrave;re, pendant plusieurs mois, &amp;eacute;tait l&amp;#39;initiation des adolescents, qui succ&amp;eacute;dait imm&amp;eacute;dia&amp;shy;tement &amp;agrave; la circoncision (B&amp;ugrave;tende ou &amp;rsquo;Et&amp;ugrave;mba). Celle-ci n&amp;#39;est pas simplement un &amp;laquo; rite de passage &amp;raquo; entre l&amp;#39;enfance et la maturit&amp;eacute;. Elle constitue, chez les Babembe, comme le proclament les couplets chant&amp;eacute;s qui en accompagnent le d&amp;eacute;roulement, une mise &amp;agrave; mort symbolique des futurs initi&amp;eacute;s, suivie d&amp;#39;une renaissance, d&amp;#39;un nouveau &amp;laquo; forgeage &amp;raquo;11, ainsi que l&amp;#39;explicitent les m&amp;ecirc;mes chants. En effet, il ne suffit pas de na&amp;icirc;tre du corps d&amp;#39;une femme pour h&amp;eacute;riter du statut de l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre humain. Tant qu&amp;#39;ils restent enferm&amp;eacute;s dans l&amp;#39;orbe purement biologique de leur m&amp;egrave;re (que l&amp;#39;on peut assimiler dans une certaine mesure, &amp;agrave; la nature), les enfants demeurent sans d&amp;eacute;finition pr&amp;eacute;cise : ils sont assimil&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; des monstres ind&amp;eacute;cis, sans forme d&amp;eacute;finitive, que l&amp;#39;on compare volontiers aux &amp;laquo; singes de la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo;. Seul le travail du circonciseur-forgeron nt&amp;ugrave;mbe, suivi de ce r&amp;eacute;-engendrement qu&amp;#39;assure l&amp;#39;initiation, introduit l&amp;#39;adolescent dans le monde anthropologique et le transforme d&amp;eacute;finitivement en homme. Le travail sur le corps des fillettes12 a &amp;eacute;galement pour fonction (ce n&amp;#39;est pas la seule) d&amp;#39;extirper celles-ci du monde des singes13.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	11&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Les Babembe restent marqu&amp;eacute;s par un ensemble de traditions et de valeurs li&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la vie de la chasse, l&amp;#39;un des facteurs essentiels de l&amp;rsquo; ancienne &amp;eacute;conomie des Bacwa (pygm&amp;eacute;es), dont ils ont int&amp;eacute;gr&amp;eacute; de nombreux groupes et auxquels ils doivent certaines de leurs valeurs fondamentales14. Le savoir qu&amp;#39;ils ont ainsi accumul&amp;eacute; sur les m&amp;oelig;urs, la psychologie, etc., de l&amp;#39;animal est sans limites. Ils y m&amp;ecirc;lent de nombreux mythes que v&amp;eacute;hiculent d&amp;#39;intarissables l&amp;eacute;gendes, contes et proverbes. Les propos qu&amp;#39;ils tiennent sur les singes, qui viennent d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre &amp;eacute;voqu&amp;eacute;s, nous semblent restituer fid&amp;egrave;lement les proc&amp;eacute;dures de cette conjuration verbale, beaucoup plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale contre l&amp;#39;animal, qui forme l&amp;#39;un des axes majeurs de leur culture.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Les esp&amp;egrave;ces de singes qui vivent dans les for&amp;ecirc;ts montagneuses de l&amp;#39;Ubembe sont nombreuses. On y rencontre, en particulier, le chimpanz&amp;eacute; (&amp;#39;ele nsoko) et le gorille (&amp;#39;eng&amp;ugrave;ti, ngyila). De ces primates, les Babembe admettent qu&amp;#39;ils forment - ou formaient - une esp&amp;egrave;ce d&amp;#39;hommes qui ma&amp;icirc;trisaient le langage. Ces singes n&amp;#39;auraient cess&amp;eacute; de parler que pour &amp;eacute;viter de comprendre l&amp;#39;homme, &amp;eacute;chapper ainsi &amp;agrave; son emprise15. Ils accordent aux primates des pouvoirs dont l&amp;#39;homme ne dispose point. Ainsi attribuent-ils au gorille un don de divination, qu&amp;#39;ils assignent &amp;agrave; un troisi&amp;egrave;me &amp;oelig;il que poss&amp;eacute;derait ce singe &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur du cr&amp;acirc;ne, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;arri&amp;egrave;re du cerveau, et qui lui permettrait de voir derri&amp;egrave;re lui, mais aussi de remonter le pass&amp;eacute;. Ils reconnaissent devoir aux chimpanz&amp;eacute;s certains &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments, fondamentaux, de leur culture mat&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;rielle : l&amp;#39;art de construire leurs huttes, qui leur a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; inspir&amp;eacute; par l&amp;#39;examen des nids (ou couchettes) de ces singes ; l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e de monter leurs propres lits sur des pilotis, etc. Ils n&amp;#39;ignorent pas les traditions cwa (pygm&amp;eacute;es) selon lesquelles les singes seraient les premiers &amp;agrave; avoir utilis&amp;eacute; le feu. Ils ne se prononcent pas sur ce point16. Par ailleurs, ils ne parlent des singes qu&amp;#39;avec un m&amp;eacute;pris affect&amp;eacute; - culturellement cod&amp;eacute; : les singes sont m&amp;eacute;chants ; ils puent. Leur pestilence est d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute;e par le m&amp;ecirc;me nom que celui des odeurs f&amp;eacute;cales t&amp;ugrave;byi. Puanteur d&amp;#39;autant plus redoutable qu&amp;#39;elle annonce d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pouvantables maladies : pian, l&amp;egrave;pre et d&amp;#39;autres -innommables17. Si, par ailleurs, les singes ont refus&amp;eacute; de parler et de servir l&amp;#39;homme, c&amp;#39;est en r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; qu&amp;#39;ils sont d&amp;#39;une fain&amp;eacute;antise inv&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;e - d&amp;#39;autant moins justifiable chez ces b&amp;ecirc;tes qu&amp;#39;on leur reconna&amp;icirc;t une force presque surna&amp;shy;turelle. Les singes sont des &amp;ecirc;tres qui ignorent la plus &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;mentaire des politesses : ils s&amp;#39;amusent, par exemple, &amp;agrave; battre les chiens, tubwa, des chasseurs.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	12&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe6.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 992px; height: 1311px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 2. Cr&amp;acirc;ne de gorille m&amp;acirc;le &amp;lsquo;Enguti, mont&amp;eacute; sur un socle de bois, partiellement surmodel&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;aide de r&amp;eacute;sine cengwe, recouverte d&amp;rsquo;h&amp;eacute;matite m&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;se. Envelopp&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;arri&amp;egrave;re d&amp;rsquo;une peau de gorille. (Un rouleau de peau, sans doute de gorille, r&amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute; aux rayons X, est ench&amp;acirc;ss&amp;eacute; sous l&amp;rsquo;endocr&amp;acirc;ne). Orn&amp;eacute; de points-cercl&amp;eacute;s. Frises de cauris, de fragments d&amp;rsquo;Acathina sp. et de plumes de poule (haut. : 34 cm.). Secteur de Mtambala. (Photo G. Schmits).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Enfin, comble d&amp;#39;aberration, ils ne semblent vivre que pour apaiser leurs fureurs sexuelles et on les voit, parfois, dans les villages, chercher &amp;agrave; violer les femmes. Et cependant, les Bam&amp;egrave;-L&amp;eacute;opards conservent, dans leurs tr&amp;eacute;sors, des cr&amp;acirc;nes de chimpanz&amp;eacute;s, de gorilles et de cercopith&amp;egrave;ques, qu&amp;#39;ils soignent religieu&amp;shy;sement. Ils les d&amp;eacute;corent, les surmod&amp;egrave;lent pour leur rendre l&amp;#39;apparence de la vie (Ill. 2 &amp;amp; 3). Certains clans de l&amp;#39;Itombwe18 sculptent des masques humains dans la calotte cr&amp;acirc;nienne des chimpanz&amp;eacute;s, masques qui sont exhib&amp;eacute;s lors des initiations, pour magnifier la force, l&amp;#39;agilit&amp;eacute; intellectuelle et l&amp;#39;esprit de solidarit&amp;eacute; - propres &amp;agrave; ces singes -, valeurs fondamentales de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thique du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Enfin, de nombreux clans admettent &amp;eacute;galement dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave; le grade d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu, soit du Colobus abyssinicus, un grade &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; dans la hi&amp;eacute;rarchie de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	13&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe7.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 600px; height: 933px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 3. Cr&amp;acirc;ne de chimpanz&amp;eacute; &amp;lsquo;ele nso&amp;rsquo;o, dont la calotte est sculpt&amp;eacute;e en forme de visage humain. Plumes de poule. Pigment d&amp;rsquo;ocre m&amp;rsquo;muse. Les points cercl&amp;eacute;s nga&amp;rsquo;ata y&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;alungi sont parfois compar&amp;eacute;s aux ocelles du l&amp;eacute;opard. Art bembe-lega de l&amp;rsquo;Itombwe. Photo de terrain. &amp;nbsp;&amp;copy;P.P. Gossiaux (1974).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Voil&amp;agrave; qui renforce encore l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;nigme qui suscitait d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; notre interrogation : comment devenir singe lorsqu&amp;#39;on &amp;eacute;prouve un tel m&amp;eacute;pris pour les singes et, plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement, comment devenir ch&amp;egrave;vre, varan, serpent, l&amp;eacute;opard, lorsque l&amp;#39;ordre culturel n&amp;#39;assume votre identit&amp;eacute; qu&amp;#39;en la d&amp;eacute;clinant contre l&amp;#39;animal ?&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pos&amp;eacute;e de cette fa&amp;ccedil;on, la question r&amp;eacute;cuse les solutions auxquelles avaient song&amp;eacute; les administrateurs coloniaux, confront&amp;eacute;s aux soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s d&amp;rsquo;&amp;laquo; Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards &amp;raquo;, d&amp;rsquo;&amp;laquo; Hommes-lions &amp;raquo;, ou encore d&amp;rsquo;&amp;laquo; Hommes-crocodiles &amp;raquo;, bref &amp;agrave; ce qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; la suite de J. Maes, on d&amp;eacute;signait alors sous le nom d&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; aniotisme &amp;raquo; et qui demeure tellement mal connu qu&amp;#39;il nous semblerait ill&amp;eacute;gitime, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;heure actuelle, d&amp;#39;y assimiler les faits &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;s &amp;nbsp;ici.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	14&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;une des th&amp;egrave;ses r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement all&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;es, &amp;agrave; cette &amp;eacute;poque, pour expliquer l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; aniotisme &amp;raquo; et ses manifestations se r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rait, en effet, aux th&amp;eacute;ories du tot&amp;eacute;misme - dont personne, alors, ne mettait en doute la validit&amp;eacute;. Certains hommes cherchaient, tout simplement, &amp;agrave; retrouver l&amp;#39;apparence de leur anc&amp;ecirc;tre-animal et &amp;agrave; en manifester la puissance, notamment par le meurtre19. Le &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; tot&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;misme &amp;raquo;, on l&amp;#39;aura compris, est totalement &amp;eacute;tranger aux Babembe : chaque groupe assimile l&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre commun soit &amp;agrave; la premi&amp;egrave;re femme (Holo ou Kamania - dans les groupes &amp;nbsp;zoba et kunda), ou encore, dans les g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogies lega, au fondateur du clan que des traditions relativement r&amp;eacute;centes et de toute mani&amp;egrave;re fictives font &amp;eacute;galement descendre d&amp;rsquo;un m&amp;ecirc;me anc&amp;ecirc;tre (Sungu, M&amp;rsquo;bondo20 fils d&amp;rsquo;Ikama, descendants de Leka, &amp;nbsp;Mwenda (pour les Balala) etc.). &amp;nbsp;S&amp;#39;il est vrai, comme nous le verrons, que les Babembe admettent qu&amp;#39;un homme puisse se transformer d&amp;eacute;finitivement en animal, la th&amp;eacute;orie &amp;laquo; tot&amp;eacute;miste &amp;raquo; ne saurait rendre compte des rituels de m&amp;eacute;tamorphose que nous interrogeons ici, ni de la philosophie qui les inspire.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nous l&amp;#39;avons signal&amp;eacute; : les Babembe attribuent &amp;agrave; la plupart des animaux des pouvoirs magiques, des dons surnaturels. L&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne parcourt en r&amp;ecirc;ve le futur, le buffle est invisible &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tat naturel, le pangolin - tout comme certains serpents - dialogue avec les morts. L&amp;#39;on aura l&amp;#39;occasion de revenir sur ce point. Il est donc logique que les sp&amp;eacute;cialistes (devins, th&amp;eacute;rapeutes, sorciers etc.) s&amp;rsquo;efforcent de s&amp;#39;approprier ces dons en utilisant certains &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments tir&amp;eacute;s du monde animal. Mais ces proc&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;s, qui rel&amp;egrave;vent de ce qu&amp;#39;autrefois l&amp;#39;on appelait la &amp;laquo; magie sympathi&amp;shy;que &amp;raquo;, ne rencontrent l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;nigme de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose que tr&amp;egrave;s lointainement. Un chef pourra utiliser, par exemple, une queue de buffle (m&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;nga wa mboko) charg&amp;eacute;e de cervelle d&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne, de quartz et de mica, pour se rendre invisible (donc invuln&amp;eacute;rable), tout en cherchant &amp;agrave; se donner le don de l&amp;#39;omniscience. Mais il ne s&amp;#39;identifiera en rien, pour autant, au buffle ou &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne. De m&amp;ecirc;me, les circoncis batende qui portent, dans certaines circonstances, des masques zoomorphes repr&amp;eacute;sentant le hibou, cwecwe (Ill. 5), ou le singe, &amp;rsquo;amba, ne comprendraient m&amp;ecirc;me pas que l&amp;#39;on puisse songer qu&amp;#39;ils chercheraient &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;assimiler &amp;agrave; ces animaux.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pour retrouver la logique de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose, il faut ma&amp;icirc;triser celle des formes stables et donc red&amp;eacute;couvrir la structure de l&amp;#39;univers, ses cloisonnements, leur sens et leurs fonctions, selon les repr&amp;eacute;sentations que s&amp;#39;en font les Babembe. L&amp;#39;on concevra sans peine que nous n&amp;#39;en saurions ici qu&amp;#39;esquisser le sch&amp;eacute;ma.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	15&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fondements du savoir bembe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le savoir initiatique bembe postule que l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre, &amp;rsquo;Ebalo, est constitu&amp;eacute; de cinq &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments : l&amp;#39;ombre &amp;rsquo;Ecucumbe, le ciel Ikulu, l&amp;#39;eau Makye, la terre &amp;rsquo;Ese et l&amp;rsquo;air ou le vent L&amp;ugrave;lele (et &amp;nbsp;M&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;kya).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tous les &amp;ecirc;tres qui composent l&amp;#39;univers r&amp;eacute;sultent de l&amp;#39;association de ces cinq &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments, combin&amp;eacute;s cependant selon des modalit&amp;eacute;s et des degr&amp;eacute;s diff&amp;eacute;rents. La vie, la sensibilit&amp;eacute; et l&amp;#39;intelligence &amp;eacute;manent &amp;eacute;galement de ces cinq substances : le souffle vital, m&amp;rsquo;muke, provient du vent ; l&amp;#39;intelligence bwenge et la vue, de la lumi&amp;egrave;re. L&amp;#39;eau, la terre et le feu forment le corps, le sang et le lait, etc.21. Comme les Babembe pensent que certains m&amp;eacute;taux - le cuivre notamment - &amp;laquo; entendent &amp;raquo; et &amp;laquo; parlent &amp;raquo;, il faut admettre qu&amp;#39;ils postulent &amp;eacute;galement que le monde inorga&amp;shy;nique est dot&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;une vie, b&amp;ugrave;lamu, &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;mentaire ; ce qui explique qu&amp;#39;ils &amp;laquo; nourris&amp;shy;sent &amp;raquo; d&amp;#39;enduits d&amp;#39;huile et de terre blanche, etc., certains quartz, par exemple, dans le culte de l&amp;#39;esprit B&amp;ugrave;sango Sango.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il est fondamental, on le devine, de pouvoir d&amp;eacute;celer les qualit&amp;eacute;s et les vertus de chaque &amp;ecirc;tre, r&amp;eacute;sultant des combinaisons diverses qui en font l&amp;#39;essence, afin d&amp;#39;en conna&amp;icirc;tre le sens et la fonction qui peuvent en faire des agents magiques, th&amp;eacute;rapeutiques ou nutritifs. Pour identifier ces qualit&amp;eacute;s fondamenta&amp;shy;les, les Babembe combinent plusieurs crit&amp;egrave;res, ordonnant des taxinomies qui, rapport&amp;eacute;es les unes aux autres, permettent tant&amp;ocirc;t d&amp;#39;exclure des rep&amp;egrave;res se r&amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;lant ainsi n&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre qu&amp;#39;accessoires, tant&amp;ocirc;t au contraire de les combiner pour les &amp;eacute;lever au rang des signatures d&amp;eacute;cisives, t&amp;ugrave;manyi &amp;lsquo;bico, des &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments que l&amp;#39;on interroge.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	De tous les crit&amp;egrave;res, le plus important, celui qui s&amp;#39;impose naturellement &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;esprit, est l&amp;#39;habitat ou le lieu o&amp;ugrave; se trouvent r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement l&amp;#39;animal, la plante ou la pierre que l&amp;#39;on cherche &amp;agrave; classer. L&amp;#39;on con&amp;ccedil;oit qu&amp;#39;un papyrus &amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;&amp;rsquo;ote dont les racines plongent dans l&amp;#39;eau du Tanganyika, ne saurait &amp;ecirc;tre rang&amp;eacute; parmi les plantes qui ne croissent que dans les montagnes du pays. Certains copals fossiles que rec&amp;egrave;le le sol ne sauraient, non plus, &amp;ecirc;tre confondus avec les r&amp;eacute;sines &amp;lsquo;asise ou &amp;lsquo;asu&amp;rsquo;u qui coulent du haut des arbres. M&amp;ecirc;me au sein d&amp;#39;un genre semblable : les singes nocturnes et ceux qui vivent apparemment le jour ne sauraient investir le m&amp;ecirc;me champ s&amp;eacute;mantique. L&amp;#39;on comprend que pour pouvoir assigner chaque &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ment du monde &amp;agrave; son espace-type, il importe de d&amp;eacute;limiter le nombre et la nature de ses cloisonnements, soit de soumettre la continuit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;univers &amp;agrave; un d&amp;eacute;coupage logique, r&amp;eacute;inscrire le territoire aux franges ind&amp;eacute;cises du monde r&amp;eacute;el sur la carte d&amp;#39;un damier classificatoire.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	16&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ce damier, les Babembe ont pu l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;laborer gr&amp;acirc;ce &amp;agrave; un double d&amp;eacute;coupage : celui du temps et de l&amp;#39;espace. Cette op&amp;eacute;ration se r&amp;eacute;f&amp;egrave;re d&amp;#39;assez loin &amp;agrave; leurs traditions cosmogoniques22. &amp;Agrave; l&amp;#39;origine, et peut-&amp;ecirc;tre sous l&amp;#39;impulsion d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Abeca (&amp;laquo; Dieu &amp;raquo;), l&amp;#39;ombre et le ciel (condens&amp;eacute; dans le soleil c&amp;ugrave;ba) se partag&amp;egrave;rent le nycth&amp;eacute;m&amp;egrave;re en deux parties &amp;eacute;gales : celui du jour (suku ou l&amp;ugrave;suku) et de la nuit (b&amp;ugrave;suku). Il importe de souligner que la nuit ne saurait en rien se d&amp;eacute;finir par l&amp;#39;absence seule du soleil. L&amp;#39;ombre est une substance en soi, sorte de lumi&amp;egrave;re noire que certains animaux peuvent &amp;eacute;mettre de leurs yeux. L&amp;#39;eau, qui recouvrait la terre, pr&amp;eacute;tendit r&amp;eacute;gner sur le monde. Le soleil, &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;tonn&amp;eacute; par les paroles prof&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es par la pluie &amp;raquo;, c&amp;ugrave;ba natangalwa na mikambo matenda mb&amp;ugrave;la, entreprit de lutter contre elle23 : la terre put ainsi &amp;eacute;merger. Toutefois, leur lutte demeure ind&amp;eacute;cise comme en t&amp;eacute;moignent les temp&amp;ecirc;tes ngunja (particuli&amp;egrave;rement violentes sur le lac Tanganyika), les ouragans, etc. La succession des saisons, domin&amp;eacute;es tant&amp;ocirc;t par le feu du soleil, tant&amp;ocirc;t par l&amp;#39;eau, en r&amp;eacute;sulte. Le vent n&amp;#39;accepta aucun partage. Il se trouve donc partout. Mais il intervient &amp;eacute;galement dans le rythme des saisons, dont il marque le d&amp;eacute;but et la fin24. C&amp;#39;est &amp;eacute;galement lui qui r&amp;eacute;git le cours de l&amp;#39;existence puisque, lorsqu&amp;#39;il quitte un &amp;ecirc;tre vivant, celui-ci meurt.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;univers est donc partag&amp;eacute; en deux par l&amp;#39;axe du temps tout d&amp;#39;abord qui oppose la nuit (ombre) au jour. Chacun de ces univers est ensuite cloisonn&amp;eacute; selon deux dimensions spatiales : celles de la verticalit&amp;eacute; et de l&amp;#39;horizontalit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Horizontalement, le monde est divis&amp;eacute; en quatre d&amp;eacute;partements : le village et ses champs en occupent le centre, la for&amp;ecirc;t le pourtour. Entre les deux, la brousse forme un espace interm&amp;eacute;diaire. Quant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;eau, le monde souterrain est son g&amp;icirc;te naturel : elle affleure toutefois, pour former les lacs, les &amp;eacute;tangs, les rivi&amp;egrave;res, etc. Sous l&amp;#39;action du vent et dans sa lutte contre le soleil, elle se transforme en pluies25. Chacun des quatre d&amp;eacute;partements d&amp;eacute;limit&amp;eacute;s ainsi de mani&amp;egrave;re conventionnelle se trouve, &amp;agrave; son tour, divis&amp;eacute; en trois strates verticales : celle du &amp;laquo; haut &amp;raquo; (par exemple : le haut du ciel, des arbres, ou des cases), celle du niveau du sol ou de l&amp;#39;eau, et enfin celle du &amp;laquo; bas &amp;raquo; : le monde souterrain ou subaquatique. L&amp;#39;univers, tel un damier, est donc segment&amp;eacute; en douze cases. Logiquement m&amp;ecirc;me, puisqu&amp;#39;au monde de la nuit succ&amp;egrave;de celui du jour, et que chacun est compartiment&amp;eacute; de la m&amp;ecirc;me mani&amp;egrave;re, l&amp;#39;on devrait en doubler le nombre. Les plus hauts initi&amp;eacute;s, Bacwa, de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; secr&amp;egrave;te d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, le dieu des morts (Ill. 4), n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;sitent pas en effet, pour penser le monde, &amp;agrave; utiliser cette derni&amp;egrave;re grille, dont ils raffinent encore la texture en y m&amp;ecirc;lant d&amp;#39;autres axes taxinomiques : les quatre points cardinaux, les quatre parties du jour (li&amp;eacute;e chacune &amp;agrave; une couleur : blanc, rouge, noir et vert), la succession des saisons, etc. Mais les membres des autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s - dont le Bwam&amp;egrave; - classent arbitrairement tous les compartiments du village et de la brousse (bas, sol, haut) dans l&amp;#39;univers du &amp;laquo; jour &amp;raquo;, m&amp;ecirc;me lorsqu&amp;#39;il fait nuit. Inversement, les &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments de la for&amp;ecirc;t et de l&amp;#39;eau sont classificatoirement nocturnes, alors qu&amp;#39;il fait jour. Cette r&amp;egrave;gle taxinomique peut se comprendre : les &amp;ecirc;tres diurnes qui se comportent normalement dorment la nuit venue. Ils se coupent donc du monde des ombres. Inversement, les &amp;ecirc;tres nocturnes plongent pendant le jour solaire dans le sommeil et la nuit des r&amp;ecirc;ves.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	17 &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe8.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 1488px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 4. Le masque &amp;lsquo;ecwab&amp;ugrave;ka du dieu &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga. (Bois de Vitex ?).Ht : &amp;nbsp;c.45 cm.., sans la coiffe sala. Celle-ci est constitu&amp;eacute;e des d&amp;eacute;pouilles (plumes, peaux, piquants, etc.) d&amp;rsquo;une vingtaine d&amp;rsquo;oiseaux, de mammif&amp;egrave;res et d&amp;rsquo;insectes &amp;ndash; qui ont, chacun, une valeur embl&amp;eacute;matique. (Des faisceaux de piquants de porc-&amp;eacute;pic y sont ajout&amp;eacute;s en cas de guerre ou de conflits o&amp;ugrave; le dieu doit intervenir). Les initi&amp;eacute;s bacwa assimilent les quatre angles (s&amp;ugrave;mbo cinuci) du losange aux bords elliptiques qui traverse chacune des orbites du masque &amp;agrave; la fois aux quatre points cardinaux et aux quatre heures cruciales de la journ&amp;eacute;e (6h, 12h, 18h, 24h). Chacun des croissants renvoie &amp;agrave; un &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ment, une couleur, etc. et se trouve connot&amp;eacute; de valeurs (f&amp;eacute;minin /masculin ; positif/n&amp;eacute;gatif) diff&amp;eacute;rentes. Les ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;ses inspir&amp;eacute;es par la structure du masque proposent une lecture progressive du cosmos, dont les aspects majeurs sont symbolis&amp;eacute;s par les &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments qui entrent dans la composition de la coiffe du masque. Sur le front : fragment de la poitrine de l&amp;rsquo;aigle p&amp;ecirc;cheur. Peaux lat&amp;eacute;rales de Colobus Abyssinicus. &amp;nbsp;Robe &amp;lsquo;asamba &amp;nbsp;faite de lamelles d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;corce de tiges de papyrus. Ht. Totale : 240 cm. (Le dieu fut interdit en &amp;nbsp;1948). (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	18&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Une pr&amp;eacute;cision s&amp;#39;impose ici : si le monde de la for&amp;ecirc;t et de l&amp;#39;eau appara&amp;icirc;t tout naturellement &amp;agrave; la pens&amp;eacute;e bembe comme le lieu de l&amp;#39;ombre et de la nuit, c&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;il passe pour &amp;ecirc;tre le s&amp;eacute;jour habituel des esprits, bacim&amp;ugrave;, mashile, bifwa, des morts et de leurs fant&amp;ocirc;mes, mim&amp;rsquo;ma, milema26. Il convient d&amp;#39;ajouter que la notion d&amp;#39;un enfer chtonien, &amp;agrave; laquelle correspond le monde d&amp;#39; &amp;#39;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, est propre aux Babembe d&amp;#39;origine &amp;nbsp;zoba, nhoma, sanze ou b&amp;ugrave;y&amp;ugrave;, qu&amp;#39;ont assimil&amp;eacute;s les Babembe lega, nyindu, mwenda etc., lesquels n&amp;#39;ont pas encore int&amp;eacute;gr&amp;eacute; compl&amp;egrave;tement ce concept : pour eux, le monde des morts est, avant tout, la for&amp;ecirc;t mwitu. (Les missionnaires traduisent, du reste, le mot biblique &amp;laquo; d&amp;eacute;mon &amp;raquo; par wamwitu : &amp;laquo; celui de la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo;. Exemple : &amp;lsquo;ahingelwa na wamwitu signifie &amp;laquo; il est poss&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute; du d&amp;eacute;mon &amp;raquo;). Les anc&amp;ecirc;tres, &amp;eacute;voqu&amp;eacute;s lors des incantations, sont toujours d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute;s par cette formule : &amp;laquo; vous qui &amp;ecirc;tes partis dans la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Enfin, l&amp;#39;on notera que la taxinomie circulaire nuit /jour permet de classer les pierres, les plantes, etc., selon qu&amp;#39;on les rencontre en for&amp;ecirc;t, en brousse, au village, etc.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ce damier &amp;eacute;pist&amp;eacute;mologique autorise une premi&amp;egrave;re classification : celle des &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments - depuis les terres diverses jusqu&amp;#39;au monde des esprits, en passant par les plantes, l&amp;#39;animal et l&amp;#39;homme - auxquels les lois qui r&amp;eacute;gissent l&amp;#39;ordre du monde semblent avoir assign&amp;eacute; une case bien pr&amp;eacute;cise, comme espace &amp;laquo; normal &amp;raquo;, &amp;laquo; ordinaire &amp;raquo; au sens &amp;eacute;tymologique. L&amp;#39;on peut en donner quelques exemples : le coq &amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o wa m&amp;rsquo;l&amp;ugrave;me qui annonce le jour en appelant le soleil, qui aime se jucher sur les toits ou sur une &amp;eacute;minence quelconque, semble bien ma&amp;icirc;triser l&amp;#39;espace du &amp;laquo; haut &amp;raquo; du village. Il est, en effet, l&amp;#39;un des symboles &amp;eacute;minents de l&amp;#39;ordre culturel. Ma&amp;icirc;tre des poules, il les force &amp;agrave; entretenir la propret&amp;eacute; du village. Foyer de lumi&amp;egrave;re27, il interviendra dans d&amp;#39;innombrables rituels destin&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; conjurer les morts, &amp;agrave; en exorciser la pr&amp;eacute;sence ou rem&amp;eacute;dier aux maladies qui leur sont imput&amp;eacute;es.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;animal qui domine les hauteurs de la for&amp;ecirc;t, le ma&amp;icirc;tre de la mort, est le hibou (cwecwe : terme g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rique). Son masque prot&amp;eacute;gera, notamment, les circoncis batende du regard v&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;neux des sorciers, tout en mena&amp;ccedil;ant les femmes de st&amp;eacute;rilit&amp;eacute; (Ill. 5).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	19&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe9.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 1080px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 5. &amp;lsquo;Eluba ya butende na cwecwe &amp;nbsp;Masque de circoncision de type &amp;laquo; hibou &amp;raquo; et l&amp;rsquo;un de &amp;nbsp;ses mod&amp;egrave;les possibles (ici a&amp;rsquo;ululu :Effraie du Cap. Tyto Capensis. Schn.). Bois (Ficus ?). Pigments : kaolin, Iridina spekii et h&amp;eacute;matite. &amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux. (Baraka, 1971). &amp;nbsp;Ht. c. 35 cm (Le masque est d&amp;eacute;pourvu de ses coiffes et robes).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sur le ciel de l&amp;#39;eau - espace nocturne, rappelons-le -, r&amp;egrave;gne la chouette p&amp;ecirc;cheuse &amp;rsquo;ekolyolyo (Scotopolia peli Bonaparte) : ses griffes et ses plumes entrent dans la magie de la chasse. Certains serpents aquatiques, qui grimpent la nuit dans les arbres, lui sont associ&amp;eacute;s. Nous les retrouverons dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Enfin, la savane est domin&amp;eacute;e par le touraco violac&amp;eacute; mukasa ou nd&amp;ugrave;ba (Musophaga rossae Gould) dont la couronne de plumes rouges annonce la royaut&amp;eacute; solaire (Ill. 6). Cette couronne orne la calotte, les masques et les statues de certains Bam&amp;egrave;. Fix&amp;eacute;e sur une petite coiffe, &amp;rsquo;undjukulu, elle sera d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute;e sur la t&amp;ecirc;te de tous les l&amp;eacute;opards tu&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; la chasse. Son nom complet, sala ya nd&amp;ugrave;ba &amp;rsquo;undjukulu &amp;eacute;&amp;ugrave;mbu ya c&amp;ugrave;ba (&amp;laquo; coiffe de plumes du touraco, couronne du soleil &amp;raquo;), en livre tout le sens.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	20&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe10.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 1181px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ILL. 6. La couronne de plumes rouges du touraco nd&amp;ugrave;ba ou mukasa (Mussophaga Rossae Gould.), l&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;ndjukulu, est la marque de la royaut&amp;eacute; (bwam&amp;egrave;) de l&amp;rsquo;animal sur l&amp;rsquo;univers solaire de la brousse. (Photo J.-P. Parduyns, 1985).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux du sol sont, pour le village et les champs, repr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute;s par la ch&amp;egrave;vre mb&amp;ugrave;ci. Jolie, fol&amp;acirc;tre, conviviale et propre (contrairement au chien mbwa qui est sorcier, notamment parce qu&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;site point &amp;agrave; se nourrir d&amp;#39;excr&amp;eacute;ments28), elle intervient dans tous les &amp;eacute;changes sociaux, elle autorise la circulation constante des dons et contre-dons, elle entre dans la composition de la dot ; elle est exig&amp;eacute;e comme offrande (bis&amp;egrave;ko, mit&amp;ugrave;nga, bokyo) de tout initiateur avant qu&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;accepte de partager son savoir29. La d&amp;eacute;coupe et le partage de son corps, tout comme la consommation de sa chair, ob&amp;eacute;issent &amp;agrave; un rituel strictement codifi&amp;eacute; dont les lois restituent sch&amp;eacute;matiquement la structure du clan agnatique. Para&amp;shy;digme, en somme, de la norme sociale, elle sert de rem&amp;egrave;de contre de nombreuses maladies. Sa cervelle, m&amp;ecirc;l&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; de la terre blanche l&amp;ugrave; &amp;rsquo;hemba, est une sorte de panac&amp;eacute;e que l&amp;#39;on prendra, &amp;agrave; tout hasard, lorsqu&amp;#39;un devin mlako tarde - ou h&amp;eacute;site - &amp;agrave; identifier la cause (esprit ou mort) d&amp;#39;une maladie.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	21&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le sol de la savane ou de la brousse trouve l&amp;#39;un de ses paradigmes dans les nombreuses esp&amp;egrave;ces d&amp;#39;antilopes fauves (ng&amp;ugrave;lungu, g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;r. mbale : Damaliscus lunatus tiang Heuglin). Fi&amp;egrave;res de leur beaut&amp;eacute;, hautaines, elles se laissent toutefois chasser sans &amp;eacute;prouver de haine. Leur chair symbolise la sagesse du chasseur, soumis &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ordre social, qui accepte le rituel du partage. Elles ont cependant tendance, disent les Babembe, &amp;agrave; &amp;laquo; se diriger vers le soir &amp;raquo;. &amp;Ecirc;tres de transition, elles n&amp;#39;appartiennent plus au village solaire, sans pour autant &amp;ecirc;tre initi&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la nuit. Bien que certaines d&amp;#39;entre elles (trag&amp;eacute;laphes) errent parfois aux lisi&amp;egrave;res de la for&amp;ecirc;t. C&amp;#39;est pourquoi le l&amp;eacute;opard - disent les contes - en est d&amp;eacute;sesp&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;ment amoureux : c&amp;#39;est inutilement qu&amp;#39;il leur offre, tour &amp;agrave; tour, le soleil, la lune et les &amp;eacute;toiles.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Par contre, une autre esp&amp;egrave;ce de trag&amp;eacute;laphe, le tundu (Tragelaphus boocercus eurycerus Ogilby), ne vit que dans les profondeurs de la for&amp;ecirc;t. L&amp;#39;on serait tent&amp;eacute; de la distinguer de ses s&amp;oelig;urs et d&amp;#39;en faire la reine du sol de la nuit. Sa peau r&amp;eacute;siste aux lances, disent les Babembe. Immortelle, en contact permanent avec les morts, elle garnit le bouclier ngabo des guerriers, moins pour les prot&amp;eacute;ger que pour menacer l&amp;rsquo;ennemi des &amp;laquo; ombres de l&amp;rsquo;au-del&amp;agrave;. Elle est &amp;eacute;galement r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;e au grand tambour, l&amp;ugrave;kombe, qui, de la for&amp;ecirc;t, annonce, par ses battements terrifiants, l&amp;rsquo;arriv&amp;eacute;e au village du dieu &amp;nbsp;&amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga. Toutefois, sa peau fauve est ray&amp;eacute;e de bandes verticales blanches. Elle n&amp;#39;est donc pas sans d&amp;eacute;tenir quelques-uns des attributs du l&amp;eacute;opard (c&amp;#39;est pourquoi les Bam&amp;egrave; ba &amp;rsquo;engwe en portent des lani&amp;egrave;res en baudrier) et ne saurait, contrairement &amp;agrave; ce que pense le profane, &amp;ecirc;tre cantonn&amp;eacute;e dans la seule cl&amp;ocirc;ture de la for&amp;ecirc;t. On la surnomme parfois, du reste, l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; oiseau &amp;raquo; (cfr. Ill. 7 &amp;amp; 8).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe11.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 300px; height: 973px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 7. R&amp;eacute;duction de marteau nondo &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;toffe de ficus, prolong&amp;eacute; par la figure de l&amp;rsquo;antilope tundu. Boocercus eurycerus. &amp;nbsp;Instrument avec lequel on frappe la poitrine de l&amp;rsquo;initi&amp;eacute; lorsqu&amp;rsquo;on vient de lui confier un secret, afin de lui rendre le c&amp;oelig;ur ferm&amp;eacute; et &amp;laquo; dur &amp;raquo;. Tundu est alors surnomm&amp;eacute; l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; oiseau &amp;raquo;. Bois, ivoire d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant. Ht. 28 cm Art de l&amp;rsquo;Itombwe). (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	22&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;rsquo;animal qui s&amp;rsquo;offre comme la synecdoque &amp;nbsp;de la for&amp;ecirc;t est donc plut&amp;ocirc;t son ennemi : le potamoch&amp;egrave;re ngulube ya mwitu (Potamochoerus porcus Linn&amp;eacute;), le sanglier de la for&amp;ecirc;t et des rivi&amp;egrave;res. Sans cesse &amp;agrave; fouiller le sol ou les eaux, il recherche, disent les Babembe, les morts. Il n&amp;#39;est, du reste, que l&amp;#39;incarnation de la mort. Mais la &amp;laquo; terre des morts &amp;raquo; que fouille le potamoch&amp;egrave;re est naturellement la source de la vie - celle des plantes en particulier. Sa chair est, du reste, &amp;nbsp;l&amp;rsquo;une des nourritures les plus appr&amp;eacute;ci&amp;eacute;es de l&amp;rsquo;homme et &amp;laquo; presque tout, chez lui, se mange &amp;raquo;. Par ailleurs, ses canines, senge, symbolisent le clitoris, akonono, artificielle&amp;shy;ment &amp;eacute;long&amp;eacute; (&amp;laquo; la m&amp;eacute;chancet&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;30 et - paradoxalement chez les Babembe - le devoir de g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rosit&amp;eacute;31) des Bah&amp;ugrave;mbwa, les femmes des hauts dignitaires du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Celles-ci les portent en sautoir, ou les fixent sur leurs couteaux et leurs statues (Ill. 9 &amp;nbsp;&amp;amp; 10).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe12.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 900px; height: 1003px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 8. Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;engwe (le visage et la coiffe en sont volontairement dissimul&amp;eacute;s). L&amp;rsquo;on distingue, fix&amp;eacute; au baudrier (gauche) de peau de l&amp;eacute;opard, le l&amp;ugrave;sembe (Porcellana parda). Sur l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;paule droite : baudrier de l&amp;rsquo;antilope tundu (Tragephalus boocercus eurycerus). Bracelet d&amp;rsquo;ivoire au poignet gauche. Voir aussi ILL 22. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux, terrain, 1971).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe13.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 918px; height: 414px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 9. Canine de jeune potamoch&amp;egrave;re. Insigne de Lubungy&amp;rsquo;o, haute dignitaire des Bahumbwa. Ivoire, &amp;eacute;mail. Diam&amp;egrave;tre : 8, 2 cm. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	23&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe14.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 900px; height: 1289px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 10. Statuette &amp;agrave; laquelle sont fix&amp;eacute;s quelques-uns des insignes majeurs d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;engwe. Repr&amp;eacute;sentation de la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o masqu&amp;eacute;e (bois de Cola latifera ; haut. : 23,5 cm). Plumes de touraco (mukasa) dans le cr&amp;acirc;ne. Diverses charges magiques dans le corps. Fix&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; sa droite : r&amp;eacute;duction en bois du couteau mwele. A gauche : r&amp;eacute;duction de serpe-sabre &amp;rsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo. Ceinture de peau de Poecilogale albinucha. A ses pieds : dent senge de phacoch&amp;egrave;re. Pos&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; sa droite : courge d&amp;eacute;cor&amp;eacute;e d&amp;rsquo;un masque de hibou, et &amp;agrave; sa gauche : r&amp;eacute;duction de village mb&amp;ugrave;ka (au centre, le l&amp;ugrave;bunga) (bois de Crossopterix febrifuga ; long. : 15 cm). Secteur de Mtambala. (Photo de G. Schmits).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	24&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le crocodile, ngwena (Crocodylus niloticus Laurenti), pourrait passer pour le type de l&amp;#39;animal des horizons aquatiques. Prudent et sage, il est cependant sans piti&amp;eacute;. Son c&amp;oelig;ur est &amp;laquo; dur &amp;raquo; comme sa peau. En cela, nous le verrons, il incarne l&amp;#39;un des imp&amp;eacute;ratifs de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thique du Bwam&amp;egrave; : des fragments de sa queue sont fix&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur des coiffes des Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards. Il dort le jour, expos&amp;eacute; au soleil pour narguer celui-ci. Un conte en fait un ancien compagnon de l&amp;#39;homme. Sans cesse en querelle, ils finirent par se s&amp;eacute;parer. Il est donc moins redoutable que sont petit fr&amp;egrave;re le varan mb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; (Varanus niloticus niloticus LINN&amp;Eacute;), dont on reparlera, et qui n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;site pas, lui, &amp;agrave; venir hanter le village ; hallucin&amp;eacute; par le d&amp;eacute;sir de manger la cervelle des enfants de l&amp;#39;homme.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pour les animaux souterrains, il y aurait lieu de mentionner certaines araign&amp;eacute;es, grillons et souris terricoles (village), le li&amp;egrave;vre (savane), l&amp;#39;amphisb&amp;egrave;ne (for&amp;ecirc;t), le poisson &amp;eacute;lectrique ni&amp;rsquo;a (Malapterurus electricus Gmelin), le myst&amp;eacute;rieux m&amp;rsquo;sala, &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; le poisson de la lune &amp;raquo; 32 et le &amp;nbsp;m&amp;rsquo;b&amp;ugrave;mbye &amp;nbsp;(le tetraodon mbu Boulenger &amp;nbsp;Ill. 20), pr&amp;eacute;sent dans les estuaires des rivi&amp;egrave;res qui se jettent dans le Tanganyika, et dont la tetrodotoxine (Ttx) constitue l&amp;rsquo;un des poisons les virulents qui soient.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;Les animaux qui semblent confin&amp;eacute;s dans un territoire logique bien d&amp;eacute;limit&amp;eacute;, doivent, pour se voir correctement pens&amp;eacute;s et trouver leur sens exact, &amp;ecirc;tre r&amp;eacute;inscrits dans une double relation : celle (paradigmatique) qu&amp;#39;ils entretiennent avec les animaux de leur espace &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; vertical &amp;raquo; et celle (syntagmatique) qui les lie (ou les oppose) aux animaux qui occupent le m&amp;ecirc;me plan de l&amp;#39;horizontalit&amp;eacute;. Ainsi, par exemple, le coq sera mis en relation avec les autres animaux du village, ceux qui sont sur terre (la ch&amp;egrave;vre) et sous terre (l&amp;#39;araign&amp;eacute;e), mais aussi avec les &amp;laquo; ma&amp;icirc;tres &amp;raquo; des trois autres pans horizontaux du monde : le hibou, la chouette p&amp;ecirc;cheuse, le touraco. La m&amp;ecirc;me op&amp;eacute;ration mentale doit &amp;ecirc;tre observ&amp;eacute;e dans l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude des plantes, des pierres, etc. L&amp;#39;on devine que la science qui s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;labore ainsi peut &amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;#39;une grande complexit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	25&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux et la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux qui transitent&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	II est des &amp;ecirc;tres qui, par leur statut ou leur comportement, semblent troubler les lois cosmologiques et &amp;eacute;thologiques qu&amp;#39;impose la classification binaire de l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre. Ils n&amp;#39;observent point, par exemple, le cycle circadien &amp;laquo; normal &amp;nbsp;&amp;raquo; du territoire qui leur est assign&amp;eacute;. Ils risquent de fausser les lois qui r&amp;eacute;gissent l&amp;#39;univers et d&amp;#39;en menacer l&amp;#39;ordonnance.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Et tout d&amp;#39;abord, que penser, par exemple, des embryons, de ces petits d&amp;#39;animaux dont la sourde croissance se d&amp;eacute;veloppe dans la g&amp;eacute;sine sombre de leurs m&amp;egrave;res33 ? Manifestement, comme beaucoup naissent aveugles et le demeu&amp;shy;rent plusieurs jours, voire quelques semaines, il faut reconna&amp;icirc;tre qu&amp;#39;ils rel&amp;egrave;vent de l&amp;#39;ombre. D&amp;egrave;s lors, les petits des animaux domestiques (chiots, chevreaux, agneaux) menacent de mani&amp;egrave;re r&amp;eacute;currente le village : ils en brouillent la clart&amp;eacute; de leur c&amp;eacute;cit&amp;eacute; sorcellaire. Leurs yeux aveugles entreront dans la composition de la charge &amp;eacute;cunjdu, qui rend invisible. Aussi, convient-il d&amp;#39;observer &amp;agrave; leur &amp;eacute;gard certaines prescriptions rigoureuses. Par exemple, ne pas les priver du lait, mabele, de leur m&amp;egrave;re. (L&amp;#39;on voit que certains &amp;laquo; tabous &amp;raquo; ou prescriptions alimentaires s&amp;#39;expliquent parfois par de tout autres raisons que celles que l&amp;#39;on imagine.) Leur donner, sous forme de lavement ou d&amp;#39;infusion, des plantes destin&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; les rendre clairvoyants le plus t&amp;ocirc;t possible. Les &amp;eacute;duquer pr&amp;eacute;matur&amp;eacute;ment : l&amp;#39;on fait sonner, par exemple, les cliquet&amp;shy;tes de chasse aux oreilles des chiots pour les &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;veiller &amp;raquo; plus vite &amp;agrave; leur t&amp;acirc;che future.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	De m&amp;ecirc;me, nous le savons, les enfants de l&amp;#39;homme restent reclus dans un statut fort ambigu, proche de celui des &amp;laquo; singes de la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo;, tant que la circoncision, b&amp;ugrave;tende, ne les a point tu&amp;eacute;s symboliquement pour les &amp;laquo; forger &amp;raquo; au monde de la culture.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mais s&amp;#39;ils sont dangereux34, ces jeunes animaux ne sont aveugles que momentan&amp;eacute;ment. Ils sont appel&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; rejoindre un jour la norme. Ce n&amp;#39;est pas le cas de ces b&amp;ecirc;tes qui semblent se jouer des fronti&amp;egrave;res logiques de l&amp;#39;univers, passer de la nuit au jour et inversement, surgir de l&amp;#39;eau pour monter aux arbres ou, comme l&amp;#39;aigle-p&amp;ecirc;cheur (&amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;hungu, yayame), fondre du soleil dans les profondeurs de l&amp;#39;eau. Ces animaux inspirent le trouble et l&amp;#39;inqui&amp;eacute;tude : leurs perp&amp;eacute;tuelles transgressions risquent d&amp;#39;entra&amp;icirc;ner d&amp;#39;incessantes rivalit&amp;eacute;s sorcellaires, de mener &amp;agrave; un &amp;eacute;tat de guerre g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralis&amp;eacute; qui pourrait inspirer au ciel et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ombre l&amp;rsquo;envie de rompre le contrat primordial, les inciter &amp;agrave; un affrontement chaotique d&amp;eacute;finitif.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	26&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;on ne saurait r&amp;ecirc;ver voir ces animaux extravagants se soumettre &amp;agrave; une discipline quelconque. Mais du moins peut-on s&amp;#39;interroger sur les raisons de leurs transgressions r&amp;eacute;it&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es, se demander si elles ne sont pas le fait du hasard, d&amp;#39;un accident impr&amp;eacute;vu de leur histoire et non d&amp;#39;un ensemble d&amp;#39;imp&amp;eacute;ratifs li&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; leur nature m&amp;ecirc;me. Pour r&amp;eacute;soudre ces questions, l&amp;#39;ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;se va devoir abandonner la carte des compartiments taxinomiques de l&amp;#39;univers, puisque l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tranget&amp;eacute; de ces animaux r&amp;eacute;side apparemment dans la volont&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;en enfreindre les lois pour leur opposer leur incompr&amp;eacute;hensible &amp;eacute;thologie. Il faudra donc se tourner vers un ordre diff&amp;eacute;rent de signatures.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les principaux crit&amp;egrave;res dont les r&amp;eacute;seaux ordonnent la th&amp;eacute;orie des signa&amp;shy;tures, t&amp;ugrave;manyi bico, bembe sont les suivants : la stature sp&amp;eacute;cifique de l&amp;#39;animal, de la plante ou de la pierre interrog&amp;eacute;s, par rapport &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;axe double de l&amp;#39;horizon&amp;shy;talit&amp;eacute; et de la verticalit&amp;eacute;. Formes &amp;eacute;lanc&amp;eacute;es ou rampantes qui opposent, par exemple, les arbres au tronc et &amp;agrave; la cime &amp;eacute;ffil&amp;eacute;es aux esp&amp;egrave;ces moins &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;es dont la ramure s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tage horizontalement (par exemple l&amp;#39;acacia, m&amp;rsquo;unga) ou aux autres arbustes, buissons, herbes, etc. Animaux hauts sur pattes35, singes, &amp;eacute;chassiers, oppos&amp;eacute;s aux animaux dont le corps, plus ramass&amp;eacute;, est proche du sol (rongeurs, must&amp;eacute;lid&amp;eacute;s, porcs) et aux animaux dont la forme est aplatie (insectes) ou tr&amp;egrave;s allong&amp;eacute;e (serpents). D&amp;#39;une mani&amp;egrave;re tr&amp;egrave;s g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale36, la verticalit&amp;eacute; symbolise la vie, l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute;, l&amp;#39;homme et - souvent - la culture. Le paradigme de cette position est incontestablement la canne &amp;nbsp;lulonge des Bam&amp;egrave;. Le fait seul de la dresser verticalement (b&amp;ugrave;lul&amp;egrave;) paralyse toute activit&amp;eacute; : danses, travaux, guerre, etc. L&amp;#39;horizontalit&amp;eacute; connote plut&amp;ocirc;t la mort, la r&amp;eacute;ceptivit&amp;eacute;, la femme et la nature. L&amp;#39;un de ses paradigmes est la surface des mares, l&amp;#39;horizon (tombeau du soleil), la civi&amp;egrave;re. La croix, msalawa, est donc myst&amp;eacute;rieuse. Elle commande la structure des cloisons internes du c&amp;oelig;ur de l&amp;#39;homme et de nombreux animaux37. Lorsqu&amp;#39; il bat, il est donc &amp;laquo; debout &amp;raquo;. Il se couche quand il meurt.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	27&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe15.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 343px; height: 3351px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 11. Canne l&amp;ugrave;longe de Mwam&amp;egrave; wa ngy&amp;rsquo;oa. (Serpent). &amp;nbsp;Elle est stratifi&amp;eacute;e en plusieurs &amp;eacute;tages qui renvoient aux niveaux verticaux de l&amp;rsquo;univers. En bas, le talon &amp;agrave; douille en fer symbolise le monde aquatique chtonien abondelwa. Le fer s&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;vase en forme de losange &amp;eacute;voquant ainsi les quatre points cardinaux sumbo t&amp;ugrave;naci (un motif que l&amp;rsquo;on retrouve dans l&amp;rsquo;orbite d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga). Entre l&amp;rsquo;univers de l&amp;rsquo;eau et celui &amp;nbsp;de l&amp;rsquo;homme, d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute; ici par une hampe annel&amp;eacute;e en bois surmont&amp;eacute;e d&amp;rsquo;un figurine &amp;agrave; mi-corps janus, le monde souterrain, o&amp;ugrave; transite le cobra aquatique, interpr&amp;egrave;te des morts. Le haut de la canne prend une forme phallique, rappelant ainsi la toute puissance des dieux et du Mwam&amp;egrave;. Le bout en est entaill&amp;eacute;, rappelant une forme de subincision que doivent subir certains Hommes-serpents. Il est orn&amp;eacute; de fils de cuivre, symboles du tonnerre et des &amp;eacute;clairs, du feu. Les clochettes en fer et les amulettes magiques de diverses esp&amp;egrave;ces, fix&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la moiti&amp;eacute; de cet &amp;eacute;tage, &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;voquent la voix du vent et la force des esprits.Le sommet de la canne, creus&amp;eacute;, contient une charge magique. Ht. 160 mm. Secteur de Ngandja. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	28&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;L&amp;#39;inscription de la conformation d&amp;#39;un &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ment naturel dans une forme g&amp;eacute;om&amp;eacute;trique (sph&amp;eacute;rique ou circulaire, cubique ou t&amp;eacute;tragonale, rhombo&amp;iuml;dale, acumin&amp;eacute;e, etc.) livre un ensemble de clefs s&amp;eacute;miologiques fort importantes. La rondeur connote g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement la passivit&amp;eacute;, la soumission ; mais aussi l&amp;#39;union, la protection (exemples : le soleil, les coquilles, les tortues, les &amp;oelig;ufs). Ainsi le ventre de la femme enceinte constitue-t-il, selon les Babembe, &amp;laquo; le bouclier de l&amp;#39;enfant &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe16.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 630px; height: 968px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; BEMBE ILL. 12. Bouclier Nhabo du masque &amp;lsquo;acwe a&amp;lsquo; &amp;rsquo;Elanda. Les profanes ne &amp;nbsp;peuvent regarder cet objet, savamment orn&amp;eacute; de serpentines en croissants de lune, sans courir le risque d&amp;rsquo;&amp;ecirc;tre poss&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;s par l&amp;rsquo;Esprit. Bois, marne blanche, h&amp;eacute;matite. Noirci au fer rouge. Ht.360 mm. Secteur &amp;nbsp;de l&amp;rsquo;IItombwe. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;Les objets en pointe &amp;eacute;voquent la force, l&amp;#39;agressivit&amp;eacute;, la guerre (exemples : croissants de lune, serpents, vers, nombreux insectes et poissons). Un animal allong&amp;eacute; qui peut se lover sur lui-m&amp;ecirc;me (serpents, pangolins) ou se mettre en boule (le t&amp;eacute;traodon Mbumbye, certains l&amp;eacute;mures, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic) sont magiques. Tous les objets qui peuvent changer de forme sont troubles de sens : un amas de petits cristaux de quartz, Iwala, aux tranchants, mileki, agressifs, qui, roul&amp;eacute; par les eaux, prend la forme d&amp;#39;une bola, sera dot&amp;eacute; de pouvoirs magiques &amp;eacute;minents : la possession en est r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;e aux chefs de village Ba &amp;ugrave;la et aux Bam&amp;egrave;38. La/le lune39 aux croissants changeants est une source d&amp;#39;angoisses continuelles - sauf lorsqu&amp;#39;il/elle est plein(e). Associ&amp;eacute;(e) au cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on, k&amp;egrave;mba, et &amp;agrave; certaines grenouilles, by&amp;ugrave;la, r&amp;eacute;put&amp;eacute;es v&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;neuses, il/elle est cause de folie et d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pilepsie ; il/elle provoque des ulc&amp;egrave;res, r&amp;eacute;pand la l&amp;egrave;pre (folie du corps).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	29&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe17.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 525px; height: 788px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 13. Pyxide d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;corce &amp;agrave; bolas de quartz avec son couvercle anthropomorphe (bois). Haut. Totale : 22cm. A droite : une bola et le haut d&amp;rsquo;une r&amp;eacute;duction en fer d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo (long. : 47cm.). Propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;engwe du secteur de Ngandja. Art bembe-zoba. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux, &amp;nbsp;terrain, 1978.)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le losange &amp;rsquo;alamba est r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement renvoy&amp;eacute; aux quatre points cardi&amp;shy;naux. La symbolique de ses angles, s&amp;ugrave;mbo, &amp;eacute;claire donc la s&amp;eacute;miologie de l&amp;#39;espace et sa taxinomie40.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;on rel&amp;egrave;vera que la masse d&amp;#39;un objet peut &amp;ecirc;tre per&amp;ccedil;ue comme une signature n&amp;eacute;gative : la petite &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; musaraigne &amp;raquo; &amp;nbsp;&amp;lsquo;apingi (Rhynchocyon reichardi Reichenow), au nez en trompette, est plus maligne que l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant, ngyo&amp;rsquo;o. La genette, m&amp;rsquo;shimba, est plus subtile que son grand fr&amp;egrave;re le l&amp;eacute;opard.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	30&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les couleurs sont &amp;eacute;galement mises en rapport avec les points cardinaux. Les Babembe admettent quatre couleurs : le blanc, l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;hemba (est-sud) est mis en relation, notamment, avec la lumi&amp;egrave;re, la femme, la vie, la nourriture et - souvent - la nature. Le rouge, t&amp;ugrave;h&amp;ugrave;lo, m&amp;rsquo;muse (sud-ouest) l&amp;#39;est avec le cr&amp;eacute;pus&amp;shy;cule, l&amp;#39;homme, le sang, la guerre, la magie, la culture. Le noir, m&amp;rsquo;mil&amp;ugrave; (ouest-nord), avec la for&amp;ecirc;t, les morts, les esprits, les statues sorcellaires, milema, mitee - lesquelles passent pour &amp;ecirc;tre vivantes. Le vert, &amp;rsquo;emena (nord-est), avec l&amp;#39;eau et la pluie, le varan et le crocodile, certains poissons, les serpents aquatiques. &amp;Eacute;galement avec la lune et l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne (les Babembe surnomment le potamogale &amp;lsquo;asakyo, &amp;laquo; l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne aquatique &amp;raquo; : &amp;rsquo;am&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;ng&amp;ugrave; a makye.) L&amp;#39;eau poss&amp;egrave;de &amp;eacute;gale&amp;shy;ment ses grands esprits : Ash&amp;egrave;bu, l&amp;#39;esprit de l&amp;#39;arc-en-ciel auquel est consacr&amp;eacute; le b&amp;eacute;lier blanc (tout comme &amp;agrave; Mtambala, l&amp;#39;esprit varan).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La couleur constitue parfois le crit&amp;egrave;re que l&amp;#39;ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;se privil&amp;eacute;gie, avant tout autre, pour assigner &amp;agrave; un animal &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; aberrant &amp;raquo; son sens et sa fonction. Ainsi en va-t-il de la ch&amp;egrave;vre noire qui, par sa seule couleur, se trouve rel&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;e dans l&amp;#39;ordre de l&amp;#39;ombre et de la mort, alors que ses s&amp;oelig;urs fauves et tachet&amp;eacute;es symbolisent la culture solaire41. La premi&amp;egrave;re &amp;eacute;preuve du Bwam&amp;egrave; consiste &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;identifier &amp;agrave; la ch&amp;egrave;vre noire, en r&amp;eacute;clamant le pinji : la peau noire d&amp;#39;un petit chevreau n&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;une ch&amp;egrave;vre noire, qui sera port&amp;eacute;e sous forme de coiffe &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ombo. Le masque &amp;lsquo;acwe du dieu justicier &amp;lsquo;Elanda, un esprit qui tient son pouvoir des morts, est &amp;eacute;galement fait de la peau d&amp;rsquo;un chevreau noir (Ill. 15 &amp;amp; 16).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe18.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 687px; height: 688px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 14. L&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;hemba. Chez les Babembe, la plus estim&amp;eacute;e est faite des valves (calcaire, nacre) abras&amp;eacute;es de l&amp;rsquo;Iridina Spekii du Tanganyika. Cf. Ill 16. Ce peut &amp;ecirc;tre comme ici, du kaolin (Silicate d&amp;rsquo;aluminium hydrat&amp;eacute; AI2Si205(0H)4), de la craie, ou de la marne blanche. Elles sont toutes conserv&amp;eacute;es sous forme de boule, car le blanc, associ&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la lumi&amp;egrave;re du matin, a notamment une fonction th&amp;eacute;rapeutique et apotropa&amp;iuml;que. &amp;Oslash; &amp;nbsp;65 &amp;nbsp;mm. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	31&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe19.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 900px; height: 1341px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 15. Masque &amp;lsquo;acwe du dieu &amp;lsquo;Elanda (le seul, authentique, connu). Constitu&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;une peau de chevreau noir cousue sur une pi&amp;egrave;ce d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;corce de ficus m&amp;rsquo;polongya. Perles de verre, cauris, plumes de poule et de coq. Ht. (du masque, sans les plumes) : 35 cm. La coiffe : plumes de coq sur treillis de raphia (elle s&amp;rsquo;orne, en temps de guerre, de piquants de porc-&amp;eacute;pic). Le corps &amp;eacute;nyamamba &amp;nbsp;est fait d&amp;rsquo;une peau de python &amp;lsquo;abwalo, sat&amp;ugrave;, &amp;nbsp;cousue sur une &amp;eacute;toffe de coton d&amp;rsquo;origine arabe, orn&amp;eacute;e de collerettes de plumes. Au revers, dans le bas, sont fix&amp;eacute;s deux petits couteaux de cuivre- symbole du double p&amp;eacute;nis du python). Dieu nocturne des clans bembe d&amp;rsquo;origine lega, &amp;lsquo;Elanda est - tout comme &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, son &amp;eacute;quivalent d&amp;rsquo;origine zoba - un dieu justicier redout&amp;eacute;. (Il fut interdit en 1940). Secteur de l&amp;rsquo; Itombwe. &amp;nbsp;(&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	32&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Lorsque les candidats &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;initiation d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga entreprennent le long parcours qui les m&amp;egrave;nera &amp;agrave; la vue du dieu, mat&amp;eacute;rialis&amp;eacute; dans la coiffe du masque-heaume &amp;nbsp;&amp;lsquo;ecwab&amp;ugrave;ka, ils sont invit&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; sauter par dessus les peaux noires du singe colobus, &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu, qui seront, ensuite, fix&amp;eacute;es sur les m&amp;acirc;choires du masque du dieu (Ill. 4). Ce c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial est nomm&amp;eacute; &amp;ugrave;hingela b&amp;ugrave;s&amp;ugrave;ku bwa &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, &amp;laquo; entrer dans la nuit d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga &amp;raquo;. &amp;nbsp;S&amp;rsquo;initier au pinji noir, en fixer la couronne42, pour un Mwam&amp;egrave;, rev&amp;ecirc;t une fonction analogue : &amp;ugrave;hingela b&amp;ugrave;s&amp;ugrave;ku bwa &amp;rsquo;engwe, &amp;laquo; entrer dans la nuit du l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;. Les Babembe n&amp;#39;ignorent rien de la panth&amp;egrave;re noire, Lungwe mwil&amp;ugrave;. Ils l&amp;#39;honorent du nom d&amp;#39; &amp;laquo; esprit &amp;raquo;, m&amp;rsquo;cim&amp;ugrave;, &amp;lsquo;ashile, ou de &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; d&amp;eacute;mon &amp;raquo; (swahili : Shetani). Certains se souviennent encore des ravages que ce d&amp;eacute;mon d&amp;#39;une taille gigantesque43, surgi du ciel, causa du temps de leurs p&amp;egrave;res dans les villages du sud de l&amp;#39;Ubembe44. Ceux-ci en furent litt&amp;eacute;ralement d&amp;eacute;cim&amp;eacute;s. L&amp;#39;on retrouvera plus loin le l&amp;eacute;opard et ses robes de ciel constell&amp;eacute;es d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;toiles noires.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe20.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 729px; height: 399px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 16. Insignes et paras&amp;egrave;mes bi&amp;rsquo; o&amp;rsquo; o des deux premiers grades du Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa &amp;nbsp;&amp;lsquo;engwe. A gauche : coiffe &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave; &amp;rsquo;ombo du Pinji &amp;nbsp;(peau de chevreau noir cousue sur une couronne tress&amp;eacute;e de lianes &amp;lsquo;ab&amp;ugrave;b&amp;egrave; ; int&amp;eacute;rieur pigment&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;h&amp;eacute;matite ; diam. : 17,5cm Cf. ILL.41.) A l&amp;rsquo;arri&amp;egrave;re : jeune crocodile ngwena momifi&amp;eacute; (long. : 88cm). En bas, de gauche &amp;agrave; droite : dent d&amp;rsquo;hippopotame ; valve d&amp;rsquo;Iridina spekii ; ngwasa (battoir) servant de nondo initiatique (ivoire d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant) ; cristaux de quartz hyalin lwalwa, symboles de l&amp;rsquo;hy&amp;egrave;ne &amp;lsquo;am&amp;rsquo;mungu ; figurine du varan mb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; (bois : Crossopterix febrifuga ; larg. : 24,3cm.) entour&amp;eacute;e de feuilles d&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;fumbef&amp;ugrave;mbe (Piliostigma thonningii) et figurine de l&amp;rsquo;agame &amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;balamusa ou du l&amp;eacute;zard &amp;egrave;b&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave;swehele (cf. Ill 39) (long. : 12cm). Origine : secteur du Tanganyika. (Photographie J.-Ph. SMEERS).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	33&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les clefs ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;tiques que l&amp;#39;on vient d&amp;#39;isoler (rapport &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;axe vertical ou horizontal, formes, couleurs) doivent &amp;eacute;galement &amp;ecirc;tre appliqu&amp;eacute;es aux &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments ou &amp;agrave; certaines particularit&amp;eacute;s des ensembles &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;s. La forme des dents, du bec, des griffes ou des sabots ; la pr&amp;eacute;sence d&amp;#39;aigrettes, de moustaches, d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cailles, de queue, etc., constituent des signes qui peuvent &amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;eacute;terminants. Tout comme l&amp;#39;aspect des feuilles, des fruits, l&amp;#39;existence d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pines, l&amp;#39;apparence rugueuse de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce, etc., pour les plantes. Du champ des odeurs, &amp;eacute;mane parfois un signe inattendu, mais d&amp;eacute;cisif : c&amp;#39;est la puanteur des gaz du Kele &amp;lsquo;ce (Kelekece), le putois africain (Poecilogale albinucha &amp;nbsp;Gray), &amp;nbsp; qui lui vaut le statut &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; qu&amp;#39;il re&amp;ccedil;oit dans le Bwam&amp;egrave;, plus encore que les signes magiques d&amp;#39;ombre ray&amp;eacute;e de tra&amp;icirc;n&amp;eacute;es de lumi&amp;egrave;re qui illuminent sa fourrure (Ill. 19).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;ordre sonore doit &amp;eacute;galement &amp;ecirc;tre scrut&amp;eacute; : le grand esprit M&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;i peut tuer de sa seule voix de cuivre ou de fer, tandis que Tembwe, le dieu-rhombe aux feulements de l&amp;eacute;opard, rythme, au contraire, l&amp;#39;univers collectif de la culture45. Le varan, malgr&amp;eacute; ses cauchemars ensanglant&amp;eacute;s, est accept&amp;eacute; au rang des Bam&amp;egrave; parce que sa peau, tendue sur un petit tambour, rend un son clair qui &amp;eacute;voque les percussions de la lumi&amp;egrave;re. Du reste, le rythme de l&amp;#39;univers, celui du jour et de la nuit comme celui des saisons, d&amp;eacute;pend du cri des b&amp;ecirc;tes et du chant des oiseaux46. Leur &amp;eacute;tude renvoie ainsi &amp;agrave; la structuration logique de l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre, selon l&amp;#39;espace et le temps, comme le ferait celle du mouvement, des trac&amp;eacute;s, des pistes et des escalades, des chutes et des danses.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La temp&amp;eacute;rature constitue &amp;eacute;galement un crit&amp;egrave;re taxonomique important, &amp;agrave; mettre en relation avec l&amp;rsquo;opposition du feu (air) et de l&amp;rsquo;ombre (terre, eau). &amp;nbsp;La vie est chaleur, la mort est froide. Les Babembe postulent que le sang mshi et le lait mabele des femmes sont &amp;laquo; froids &amp;raquo;, le sang de l&amp;rsquo;homme et son sperme b&amp;ugrave;to, &amp;laquo; chauds &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mais la lecture est infinie. Car apr&amp;egrave;s avoir interrog&amp;eacute; tous ces signes ext&amp;eacute;rieurs, il faut encore se pencher sur les signatures internes : celles que livrent l&amp;#39;eau, la lymphe, les &amp;eacute;coulements du corps, les latex, gommes et cires, les s&amp;egrave;ves et les sucs, qui renvoient aux cinq substances fondamentales compo&amp;shy;sant l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre et conf&amp;egrave;rent aux animaux, plantes, etc., leurs propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s alimentaires et th&amp;eacute;rapeutiques, magiques et sorcellaires. C&amp;#39;est sur ce savoir dont les axes logiques sont loin d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre m&amp;eacute;connus, sans se livrer toujours explicitement, que s&amp;#39;est &amp;eacute;labor&amp;eacute;e la pens&amp;eacute;e scientifique et philosophique des Babembe. Il est une remarque impor&amp;shy;tante &amp;agrave; faire, dont nous ne saurions assez souligner l&amp;#39;importance. Les cultures forment le regard, structurent les modes de perceptions et de cognition du monde sensible. Il est donc certain que l&amp;#39;univers des Babembe n&amp;#39;est pas le n&amp;ocirc;tre47.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	34&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les animaux du Bwam&amp;egrave;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Agrave; l&amp;#39;aide de ces clefs, nous pouvons chercher &amp;agrave; saisir les raisons qui ont inspir&amp;eacute; les choix qu&amp;#39;ont op&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s les Babembe de certains animaux, dans leur faune si riche, pour les &amp;eacute;lever au rang de &amp;laquo; doubles &amp;raquo; auxquels doivent s&amp;rsquo;iden&amp;shy;tifier successivement les Bam&amp;egrave; avant d&amp;#39;acc&amp;eacute;der au grade &amp;laquo; royal &amp;raquo; d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Engwe. Faute de place, nous ne pourrons pas ici les &amp;eacute;tudier tous. Nous en choisirons deux, un peu au hasard : l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Akanga et l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;E&amp;rsquo;ungu, soit le pangolin et le colobe. Nous dirons &amp;eacute;galement quelques mots du Fumba, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, en nous demandant &amp;nbsp;- en contre-&amp;eacute;preuve - pourquoi cet animal, &amp;laquo; sorcier &amp;raquo; aussi &amp;eacute;minent peut-&amp;ecirc;tre que les deux premiers, n&amp;#39;a pas &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; jug&amp;eacute; digne d&amp;#39;entrer dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;, m&amp;ecirc;me si les Ba&amp;rsquo;engwe-L&amp;eacute;opards utilisent ses piquants, fix&amp;eacute;s en faisceau sur leur front, pour marquer l&amp;#39;ouverture de la guerre.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le pangolin, &amp;rsquo;akanga, est connu par les Babembe sous deux des trois genres re&amp;ccedil;us par la zoologie occidentale : le Phataginus tricuspis (Rafinesque) et le Smutsia gigantea (Illiger)48. Ce dernier, le pangolin g&amp;eacute;ant, est devenu fort rare. Il semble m&amp;ecirc;me avoir disparu de l&amp;#39;Ubembe sauf, peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, dans les extr&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;mit&amp;eacute;s septentrionales du pays. L&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;akanga est un animal assez petit (c. 40 cen&amp;shy;tim&amp;egrave;tres sans la queue), bas sur pattes, et au ventre aplati. Sa t&amp;ecirc;te est menue et pointue. Sa queue d&amp;eacute;passe en longueur celle du corps. Cet animal rel&amp;egrave;ve donc de la g&amp;eacute;om&amp;eacute;trie de l&amp;#39;agression. Ce que confirme encore sa langue protractile, d&amp;eacute;mesur&amp;eacute;e (vingt centim&amp;egrave;tres et davantage) en forme de serpent, sa carapace d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cailles corn&amp;eacute;es makamba, &amp;nbsp;triplement lanc&amp;eacute;ol&amp;eacute;es, tr&amp;egrave;s dures et tranchantes49, et surtout ses &amp;eacute;normes griffes, d&amp;#39;une puissance ph&amp;eacute;nom&amp;eacute;nale (cf. ILL. 17). Exclusivement nocturne, le pangolin tricuspide ne vit que dans la for&amp;ecirc;t. Il loge habituellement dans de petits terriers ou galeries. C&amp;#39;est donc un animal de l&amp;#39;ombre et de la mort, ce qu&amp;#39;atteste notamment la couleur gris sombre, parfois verd&amp;acirc;tre, de ses &amp;eacute;cailles. C&amp;#39;est pourquoi il est le compagnon de la civette noire, m&amp;#39;hala (l&amp;#39;un des petits fr&amp;egrave;res du l&amp;eacute;opard, dont les Bam&amp;egrave; ba &amp;rsquo;akanga conservent les peaux et les dents50). Ce qui confirme surtout la passion avec laquelle le pangolin se compla&amp;icirc;t dans la mort, est la nature de sa nourriture. Celle-ci est essentiellement constitu&amp;eacute;e de termites, miswa, ces petits insectes qui vont dialoguer avec les cadavres et peut-&amp;ecirc;tre l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me des morts.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Arm&amp;eacute; de ses griffes, lukyala, d&amp;#39;acier, le pangolin n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;site pas en effet &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;attaquer aux termiti&amp;egrave;res, dont la terre a la consistance d&amp;#39;un b&amp;eacute;ton51, pour en d&amp;eacute;gager les couloirs d&amp;#39;a&amp;eacute;ration ou, au besoin (sa t&amp;eacute;nacit&amp;eacute;, sa patience font l&amp;#39;admiration des Bembe), en d&amp;eacute;molir les parois. Il y introduit sa langue dont la salive paralyse les insectes qu&amp;#39;il d&amp;eacute;glutit ensuite.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	35&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe21.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 1513px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 17. Insignes bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o d&amp;rsquo;un &amp;nbsp;Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;Akanga (Pangolin). Figurine en bois fix&amp;eacute;e sur une peau de pangolin. Canine de l&amp;eacute;opard fix&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; la queue par une ficelle, luc&amp;egrave;k&amp;egrave;, dans les tresses de laquelle sont ins&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es des pennes de plumes de poule. Sur la queue de la figurine, on distingue un petit pangolin. Au revers de la peau, sont fix&amp;eacute;s deux griffes v&amp;eacute;ritables de l&amp;eacute;opard, des cauris et des graines d&amp;rsquo;abrus precatorius. Le sculpteur a mis en &amp;eacute;vidence les griffes de l&amp;rsquo;animal. Bois, h&amp;eacute;matite, kaolin. Enduits rituels. Lg de la fig. &amp;nbsp;225 mm. Secteur de l&amp;rsquo; Itombwe. 1990. ( &amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux ).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	36&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Jusqu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; pr&amp;eacute;sent, tout para&amp;icirc;t normal chez le pangolin. Totalement vou&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la mort, mangeur de mort, reclus dans l&amp;#39;ombre de la for&amp;ecirc;t, il semble respecter sagement les fronti&amp;egrave;res de son espace ontologique. Mais d&amp;#39;autres traits de son comportement font na&amp;icirc;tre le doute. Cet animal que le destin semble condamner &amp;agrave; cheminer dans les profondeurs de la terre, se compla&amp;icirc;t dans les arbres, o&amp;ugrave; il se d&amp;eacute;place avec aisance. En rompant ainsi les fronti&amp;egrave;res de la verticalit&amp;eacute;, cet &amp;laquo; oiseau-l&amp;agrave; &amp;raquo; (sic)52 ne cherche-t-il pas &amp;agrave; rejoindre l&amp;#39;espace des singes ? L&amp;#39;on n&amp;#39;en doute gu&amp;egrave;re quand, en observant la mani&amp;egrave;re dont il se d&amp;eacute;place sur le sol, l&amp;#39;on d&amp;eacute;couvre qu&amp;#39;il marche debout comme certains singes et l&amp;#39;homme, sur ses deux pattes arri&amp;egrave;re, appuy&amp;eacute; sur la queue. Entend-il nier ses formes horizontales ? Sans doute, puisque, de surcro&amp;icirc;t, lorsqu&amp;#39;il craint le danger, il se love sur lui-m&amp;ecirc;me en spirale, la t&amp;ecirc;te au centre, le corps prot&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute; par sa queue h&amp;eacute;riss&amp;eacute;e de ses &amp;eacute;cailles triplement acumin&amp;eacute;es. M&amp;ecirc;me le l&amp;eacute;opard est d&amp;eacute;go&amp;ucirc;t&amp;eacute; lorsqu&amp;#39;il le rencontre dans cette position. Apr&amp;egrave;s avoir jou&amp;eacute; avec ce cerceau aussi t&amp;ecirc;tu qu&amp;#39;une tortue, mais h&amp;eacute;riss&amp;eacute; de fl&amp;eacute;chettes sanglantes, il s&amp;#39;en va &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;c&amp;oelig;ur&amp;eacute;. Le pangolin n&amp;#39;ayant donc pas de pr&amp;eacute;dateur - sauf l&amp;#39;homme53 -, c&amp;#39;est bien pour le seul plaisir (ou d&amp;eacute;sir ?) d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre oiseau qu&amp;#39;il grimpe aux arbres.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mais le voici, la queue enroul&amp;eacute;e autour d&amp;#39;une branche, pendant la t&amp;ecirc;te en bas, dans le vide. Joue-t-il &amp;agrave; la chauve-souris, &amp;lsquo;akucukucu ? Dans ce cas, n&amp;#39;est-il pas hant&amp;eacute; par quelque pens&amp;eacute;e de lumi&amp;egrave;re ? Car si la roussette c&amp;eacute;leste du village dort le jour, la t&amp;ecirc;te en bas pour montrer son derri&amp;egrave;re au soleil, c&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;elle a d&amp;eacute;finitivement rompu avec ce dernier &amp;agrave; la suite d&amp;#39;une dispute o&amp;ugrave; elle avait pris la d&amp;eacute;fense de son ami le coq que le soleil tan&amp;ccedil;ait grossi&amp;egrave;rement pour se voir rappeler &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ordre chaque matin54. Cette envie de lumi&amp;egrave;re (de culture) se manifeste &amp;eacute;galement par le soin avec lequel le pangolin s&amp;#39;occupe de sa prog&amp;eacute;niture55. En le portant c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monieusement sur la queue, le pangolin va cacher son petit dans le creux des arbres et le veille avec un soin exemplaire. C&amp;#39;est &amp;ndash; disent les Babembe - en observant ces coutumes que les femmes ont eu l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e de porter leur enfant sur le dos (dans le sac ngobe, fait de peau de ch&amp;egrave;vre)56 et, plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale&amp;shy;ment, de prendre le pangolin comme un mod&amp;egrave;le d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;ducation maternelle57. Du reste, le pangolin a transmis &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;homme bien d&amp;#39;autres &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments de sa culture. C&amp;#39;est en &amp;eacute;tudiant la disposition des &amp;eacute;cailles de l&amp;#39;animal que l&amp;#39;homme a d&amp;eacute;couvert la mani&amp;egrave;re id&amp;eacute;ale de fabriquer le toit de ses cases58 : en disposant les feuilles de nh&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave; en l&amp;eacute;ger chevauchement les unes sur les autres, &amp;agrave; partir du bas. Le pangolin a donc permis &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;homme de se d&amp;eacute;fendre de la pluie, affirmant, ici encore, sa ma&amp;icirc;trise de la lumi&amp;egrave;re. L&amp;#39;on notera que le pangolin passe pour un animal qui ne boit jamais. Ainsi, le pangolin, &amp;rsquo;akanga, op&amp;egrave;re bien l&amp;#39;impensable transition entre l&amp;#39;ombre des morts, l&amp;#39;ordre de la nature et celui du soleil de la culture. Il parcourt l&amp;#39;un des trac&amp;eacute;s du l&amp;eacute;opard, dans un sens qui n&amp;#39;est ici que b&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;fique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	37&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Alors que les Babembe ne parlent qu&amp;#39;avec un m&amp;eacute;pris affect&amp;eacute; des chim&amp;shy;panz&amp;eacute;s et des gorilles59, ils s&amp;#39;entretiennent, au contraire, des colobes60 avec plaisir. Le colobe &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu vit exclusivement en for&amp;ecirc;t. Il se tient dans les arbres, juste au-dessous de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tage r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute; aux hiboux, cwecwe, kolyolyo, b&amp;ugrave;ndi, etc. Il refuse r&amp;eacute;solument de quitter cet emplacement et ne descend &amp;agrave; terre qu&amp;#39;avec la plus extr&amp;ecirc;me r&amp;eacute;pugnance. Il pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;egrave;re m&amp;ecirc;me se laisser mourir de faim plut&amp;ocirc;t que de descendre s&amp;#39;il trouve le sol souill&amp;eacute; ou si celui-ci offre le moindre danger. C&amp;#39;est donc un animal essentiellement nocturne, comme l&amp;#39;atteste sa nourriture, exclusivement compos&amp;eacute;e de feuilles (for&amp;ecirc;t)61. Sa tendance &amp;agrave; la verticalit&amp;eacute;, dont t&amp;eacute;moigne sa propension &amp;agrave; se tenir debout, accroch&amp;eacute; par la main (qui n&amp;#39;a que quatre doigts62) &amp;agrave; une branche, le rend proche de l&amp;#39;homme. Il manifeste ainsi son pouvoir et m&amp;eacute;rite - tout comme le hibou - le titre de &amp;laquo; roi de la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo; (Mwam&amp;egrave; wa mw&amp;egrave;tu). Cette royaut&amp;eacute;, le colobe en fait la d&amp;eacute;monstration par ses danses vertigineuses, les bonds prodigieux qui le transportent d&amp;#39;une branche &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre, voire d&amp;#39;arbre en arbre. Ainsi m&amp;eacute;rite-t-il plus encore que le pangolin le titre d&amp;#39; &amp;laquo; oiseau &amp;raquo;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe22.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 800px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 18. Insignes paras&amp;egrave;mes du grade &amp;rsquo; E&amp;rsquo;ungu (Colobus abyssinicus). Sur un fond de peau d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu, de gauche &amp;agrave; droite : figurine en bois repr&amp;eacute;sentant &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu (haut. : 14,5cm). Cr&amp;acirc;ne de jeune colobus surmodel&amp;eacute; de r&amp;eacute;sine cengwe. Patines rituelles. Secteur de l&amp;rsquo;Itombwe. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	38&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Ici encore, l&amp;#39;on est tent&amp;eacute; de conclure que l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu se conforme &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ordre cosmique et qu&amp;#39;il observe la discipline de l&amp;#39;espace que lui r&amp;eacute;serve la taxinomie. Roi de l&amp;#39;ombre, il est &amp;eacute;minemment dangereux puisque de ses yeux &amp;eacute;manent de noires lueurs nocturnes : c&amp;#39;est la raison pour laquelle, sous sa variante &amp;rsquo;amba, il figure sur certains des masques de circoncision B&amp;ugrave;tende, enveloppant d&amp;#39;ombre les circoncis et rendant aveugles ceux qui les regardent63.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	N&amp;eacute;anmoins, signe &amp;eacute;nigmatique d&amp;#39;une premi&amp;egrave;re aberration, les colobes vivent le jour et dorment la nuit. Les mythes rapportent que ce comportement anormal r&amp;eacute;sulte d&amp;#39;un accident ou, si l&amp;#39;on veut, d&amp;#39;un petit drame cosmique. Fr&amp;egrave;re du hibou, vivant autrefois comme ce dernier, la nuit, il finit par ha&amp;iuml;r son &amp;laquo; fr&amp;egrave;re &amp;raquo; et refusa de le fr&amp;eacute;quenter. Voici le mythe abr&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;, qui rapporte les raisons d&amp;#39;une telle rupture.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mythe du singe et du hibou&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le singe, &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu, et le hibou, cwecwe, avaient la m&amp;ecirc;me m&amp;egrave;re, l&amp;#39;ombre, &amp;rsquo;Ecucumbe. Ils vivaient tous les deux, la nuit, tout en haut des arbres. Une nuit qu&amp;#39;il pleuvait, les petits du hibou se disput&amp;egrave;rent avec les petits du singe et, pour les insulter, ils se moqu&amp;egrave;rent des yeux des petits singes, clamant qu&amp;#39;ils &amp;eacute;taient les plus laids du monde, avec leurs affreuses bicindi (lourdes paupi&amp;egrave;res enfonc&amp;eacute;es). Pleurant, les petits singes vinrent rapporter ces injures &amp;agrave; leur p&amp;egrave;re. Furieux, celui-ci alla trouver son fr&amp;egrave;re le hibou et le mit au d&amp;eacute;fi d&amp;#39;aller examiner la forme de ses yeux dans une mare. Vex&amp;eacute;, le hibou constata, alors, qu&amp;#39;il avait des bicindi aussi affreuses, sinon davantage, que celles du singe. Il pr&amp;eacute;tendit s&amp;#39;excuser, mais le singe ne voulut rien entendre. Il descendit des arbres d&amp;#39;un &amp;eacute;tage de frondaison, veilla le jour pendant que son fr&amp;egrave;re ennemi dormait et se mit &amp;agrave; manger des feuilles alors que, la nuit, ce dernier continuait &amp;agrave; se gaver de rats64.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En quittant la cime des arbres pour en laisser la royaut&amp;eacute; au cwecwe, l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu ne se transmue sans doute pas : il demeure un &amp;ecirc;tre fa&amp;ccedil;onn&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;ombre. Mais quel &amp;eacute;trange destin est le sien : c&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; lui que revient la mission d&amp;#39;apprendre au hibou que ses yeux sont des foyers de nuit et qu&amp;#39;il est ainsi &amp;laquo; roi de la for&amp;ecirc;t &amp;raquo;, pour refuser aussit&amp;ocirc;t, malgr&amp;eacute; les excuses du hibou, de partager avec lui ce titre, modifier ensuite son habitat et inverser ses modes alimentaires. Le rat, &amp;rsquo;asuli, &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;m&amp;rsquo;mondo, n&amp;#39;est pas n&amp;eacute;cessairement connot&amp;eacute; de mani&amp;egrave;re p&amp;eacute;jorative pour les Babembe. Au contraire, dans certains clans de l&amp;#39;Itombwe, &amp;rsquo;asuli et &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;m&amp;rsquo;mondo entrent dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Mais ils appartiennent &amp;eacute;videm&amp;shy;ment au monde de la terre et m&amp;ecirc;me du sous-sol. Descendant de l&amp;#39;arbre, l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu entend, en refusant d&amp;#39;en faire sa proie, exorciser la proximit&amp;eacute; dangereuse de cet espace - lieu de mort.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	39&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ce n&amp;#39;est sans doute pas le hasard qui voulut que ce f&amp;ucirc;t par temps de pluie que le hibou et le singe se s&amp;eacute;par&amp;egrave;rent. L&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu &amp;eacute;prouve une certaine r&amp;eacute;pugnance pour l&amp;#39;eau, partageant ainsi, de mani&amp;egrave;re inattendue, l&amp;#39;une des signatures du pangolin. Or, nous le savons, l&amp;#39;eau est class&amp;eacute;e dans la m&amp;ecirc;me cat&amp;eacute;gorie que l&amp;#39;ombre, avec la for&amp;ecirc;t. Le colobe se sent-il, lui aussi, appel&amp;eacute; par la lumi&amp;egrave;re ? L&amp;#39;ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;se de sa fourrure, dont la coiffe, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tole et le camail de soleil65 tranchent sur le noir absolu de la robe, en est, pour les Babembe, un signe d&amp;#39;autant plus d&amp;eacute;cisif qu&amp;#39;ils se souviennent qu&amp;#39;ils doivent l&amp;#39;art de la danse aux bi&amp;rsquo;ungu. Or, la chor&amp;eacute;graphie, pour les Babembe, est l&amp;#39;une des formes majeures de leurs modes de communication. Non seulement tous les grands rituels collectifs sont ponctu&amp;eacute;s de danses, mais chacune des phases de l&amp;#39;initiation au Bwam&amp;egrave; - et cela pour chaque grade - r&amp;eacute;clame du candidat une &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;preuve &amp;raquo; chor&amp;eacute;graphique publique, par laquelle il entend manifester sa ma&amp;icirc;trise absolue de l&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;animal dont il vient d&amp;#39;investir l&amp;#39;essence66. Par ailleurs, disent les chants des initi&amp;eacute;s d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, c&amp;#39;est en urinant, du haut de son arbre, sur l&amp;#39;homme qu&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ungu inspira &amp;agrave; celui-ci le principe du tatouage, lequel rappelle les raies de la fourrure du singe. Cette signature donne &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;homme son identit&amp;eacute;67. L&amp;#39;urine des femmes peut rendre un sorcier impuissant, en le privant de sa propre personne. L&amp;#39;urine des singes doit donc &amp;ecirc;tre oppos&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; celle-ci. Or l&amp;#39;urine des femmes est, classificatoirement, &amp;laquo; froide &amp;raquo; pour les Babembe. Celle des singes, bi&amp;rsquo;ungu, est donc &amp;laquo; chaude &amp;raquo; et doit &amp;ecirc;tre mise en relation avec le soleil. Comme le pangolin, le colobe est donc bien un h&amp;eacute;ros culturel, dont le trajet va de l&amp;#39;ombre &amp;agrave; la lumi&amp;egrave;re, de la mort &amp;agrave; la vie. Il ne transgresse pas r&amp;eacute;ellement son espace logique, il entend plut&amp;ocirc;t servir de m&amp;eacute;diateur entre deux mondes oppos&amp;eacute;s.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le parcours de Fumba, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic (Hystrix stegmanni F. M&amp;ugrave;ller), animal aussi surprenant que le pangolin et le colobe, est inverse. Il va de la lumi&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; la mort ; de la vie joyeuse du village &amp;agrave; la solitude de la sorcellerie guerri&amp;egrave;re. Le porc-&amp;eacute;pic vit dans de profondes galeries, qui atteignent souvent plus d&amp;rsquo;une dizaine de m&amp;egrave;tres. Il y retrouve l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;abwalo, sat&amp;ugrave;, le python, interm&amp;eacute;diaire ou r&amp;eacute;incar&amp;shy;nation des morts, avec lequel il a de fr&amp;eacute;quents entretients - le plus souvent en r&amp;ecirc;ve68. Fumba est un animal diurne : la preuve en est fournie par les couleurs de ses piquants, dont le fond ivoire est annel&amp;eacute; de cercles rouges-bruns - rappelant la robe du l&amp;eacute;opard. Pourtant, il dort le jour et ne sort que la nuit. Par ailleurs, animal allong&amp;eacute;, il se roule en boule au moindre danger et n&amp;#39;offre &amp;agrave; ses vaniteux pr&amp;eacute;dateurs qu&amp;#39;une sph&amp;egrave;re h&amp;eacute;riss&amp;eacute;e de dards aussi rebutants qu&amp;#39;efficaces. Les Babembe affirment m&amp;ecirc;me qu&amp;#39;il est en mesure de lancer les dards de sa queue, telles des fl&amp;egrave;ches69. Comme le pangolin, il d&amp;eacute;courage ainsi tous ses pr&amp;eacute;dateurs possibles, y compris le l&amp;eacute;opard. Mais alors, puisqu&amp;#39; il est si bien prot&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;, que fait-il dans son trou ? Entend-il nier sa propre horizontalit&amp;eacute;, de m&amp;ecirc;me qu&amp;#39;il refuse les lois de la lumi&amp;egrave;re en ne sortant que la nuit ? En effet, tout comme le colobe, c&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; la suite d&amp;#39;une dispute avec son fr&amp;egrave;re Sengi, l&amp;#39;aulacode (Thryonomys swinderianus Temminck)70, qu&amp;#39;il s&amp;#39;est s&amp;eacute;par&amp;eacute; du village et du monde de la lumi&amp;egrave;re. Mais lui, pour une tr&amp;egrave;s mauvaise raison, comme le rapporte ce mythe, dont nous donnons la traduction compl&amp;egrave;te71, le r&amp;eacute;cit en &amp;eacute;tant assez bref :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	40&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le mythe de Fumba, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, et de Sengi, l&amp;#39;aulacode&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le porc-&amp;eacute;pic &amp;eacute;tait le fils de la s&amp;oelig;ur de l&amp;rsquo;aulacode. Un jour, il vint chez l&amp;rsquo;aulacode et il lui dit : &amp;laquo; je veux que tu me donnes une femme &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;aulacode se f&amp;acirc;che : &amp;laquo; toi, porc-&amp;eacute;pic, tu ne sais donc pas que tu es de la famille des aulacodes ? Tu viens ici chercher une femme ! Tu viens emb&amp;ecirc;ter les femmes du fr&amp;egrave;re de ta m&amp;egrave;re ! &amp;raquo; Tous les aulacodes arrivent alors pour frapper le porc-&amp;eacute;pic. Alors sa m&amp;egrave;re vient. Elle arrive. Elle entend que l&amp;#39;on frappe son enfant. Elle prend ses grands dards et mwro, mwro, elle en frappe les aulacodes. Alors un homme arrive. Il veut prendre cet animal, le fumba, en disant : &amp;laquo; quel est cet animal ? Je veux le tuer &amp;raquo;. Alors, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, le fumba, il prend tous ses piquants et mwro, mwro, il les lance l&amp;agrave; dans les jambes de l&amp;#39;homme jusqu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; son sang. Alors les gens disent : &amp;laquo; c&amp;#39;est le fumba, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic. &amp;raquo;. Bon. Lui, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic s&amp;#39;en va. Et il ferme les yeux. Il commence alors &amp;agrave; fermer ses yeux. Et il dort le jour. Il commence alors &amp;agrave; dormir le jour, dans la terre, dans un trou dans la terre. Il dit : &amp;laquo; toutes vos grandes r&amp;eacute;jouissances, toutes vos f&amp;ecirc;tes, je m&amp;#39;en mo&amp;shy;que &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;aulacode, lui, la nuit, il dort. Le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, lui, la nuit, il sort, il va manger, et quand il a pris sa nourriture, il va dormir parce que l&amp;#39;aulacode se r&amp;eacute;veille et qu&amp;#39;il lui en veut d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre venu emb&amp;ecirc;ter ses femmes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	On le voit, ce ben&amp;ecirc;t de porc-&amp;eacute;pic, trop couv&amp;eacute; par sa m&amp;egrave;re, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir demand&amp;eacute; comme &amp;eacute;pouse l&amp;#39;une de ses s&amp;oelig;urs ou de ses tantes (m&amp;egrave;res classificatoires), sans m&amp;ecirc;me se douter qu&amp;#39;il r&amp;eacute;clame ainsi le droit exorbitant de contracter l&amp;#39;inceste, se trouve rel&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute; dans le monde souterrain des morts. Il a beau d&amp;eacute;fier le village et ses f&amp;ecirc;tes, feindre de revendiquer son statut : sa rel&amp;eacute;gation est un ch&amp;acirc;timent, comme en t&amp;eacute;moigne le fait qu&amp;#39;un pr&amp;eacute;dateur, l&amp;#39;homme, se dresse enfin contre lui. Toutefois, il demeure diurne, puisque son habitat logique reste la savane. Mais en introduisant le jour dans la nuit, il attire le d&amp;eacute;sordre sur le monde.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe23.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1000px; height: 281px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BEMBE ILL. 19. Piquants de fumba (Hystrix stegmanni). Les anneaux de teinte ivoire sont le signe &amp;lsquo;amanyi&amp;rsquo;eco de l&amp;rsquo;appartenance de l&amp;rsquo;animal au monde diurne. R&amp;eacute;unis en faisceau, port&amp;eacute; en frontau par les chefs de guerre et &amp;ndash; occasionnellement - les masques des dieux &amp;lsquo;Alunga et &amp;lsquo;Elanda, ils sont signes d&amp;rsquo;agression. Selon les Babembe, ils peuvent en effet, &amp;ecirc;tre venimeux. (&amp;copy;Photo de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	41&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Durant la nuit, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic sort pour manger des racines, des oignons v&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;neux et le d&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;t&amp;egrave;re mbac&amp;rsquo;uma&amp;rsquo;u (Datura stramonium)72. Il se dirige ensuite vers le village, o&amp;ugrave; il ravage les champs, notamment de manioc dont il d&amp;eacute;vore les tubercules avec fr&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;sie. C&amp;#39;est d&amp;#39;ailleurs l&amp;agrave; que, le plus souvent, l&amp;#39;attendent l&amp;#39;homme et son chien73.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;#39;Engwe, Le L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;nbsp;(Panthera pardus Linne)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le pangolin et le colobe transitent d&amp;#39;un monde &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre en h&amp;eacute;ros de lumi&amp;egrave;re future. Ils apparaissent comme des m&amp;eacute;diateurs culturels. Fumba, le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, transgresse l&amp;#39;interdit culturel le plus grave : celui de l&amp;#39;inceste. Il risque d&amp;#39;emporter la culture dans la confusion de l&amp;#39;ombre et de la mort74. Le l&amp;eacute;opard, lui, ma&amp;icirc;trise souverainement ces deux voies : il peut transiter de l&amp;#39;ombre au ciel, de la for&amp;ecirc;t au village et inversement. Soit pour maintenir, voire renforcer l&amp;#39;ordre de l&amp;#39;univers et la discipline de ses fronti&amp;egrave;res, soit au contraire pour y introduire le chaos absolu.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contrairement au colobe, au pangolin ou au porc-&amp;eacute;pic, qui ne peuvent transiter qu&amp;#39;entre quelques-unes des cases logiques du monde, le l&amp;eacute;opard les domine toutes. Nocturne, il s&amp;#39;active le jour, avec une aisance parfaite. Il chasse de pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence au cr&amp;eacute;puscule et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;aube. On le retrouve dans les for&amp;ecirc;ts les plus sombres, mais aussi dans des savanes presque d&amp;eacute;sertes. Si son lieu de pr&amp;eacute;dilec&amp;shy;tion de chasse est la brousse, il n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;site pas &amp;agrave; hanter les villages (aujourd&amp;#39;hui, les villes) de l&amp;#39;homme, auquel il s&amp;#39;attaque volontiers et m&amp;ecirc;me, dit-on, par plaisir. Il ne d&amp;eacute;teste pas l&amp;#39;eau, car &amp;laquo; il est tr&amp;egrave;s propre &amp;raquo;75, mais il peut vivre &amp;laquo; toute une saison &amp;raquo; sans boire - comme le pangolin. Animal de l&amp;#39;horizontalit&amp;eacute;, il aime se mettre debout, contre un arbre, pour y faire ses griffes ou y laisser ses marques. Du reste, il grimpe aux arbres et &amp;laquo; danse &amp;raquo; dans ses branches avec la facilit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;un singe, et c&amp;#39;est alors qu&amp;#39;il m&amp;eacute;rite son surnom d&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; oiseau &amp;raquo;. Par ailleurs, il peut prendre toutes les formes : plut&amp;ocirc;t angulaire, il se met en boule lorsqu&amp;#39;il bondit ; il peut ramper &amp;agrave; la mani&amp;egrave;re d&amp;#39;un serpent, en traquant ; il peut m&amp;ecirc;me prendre - comme le buffle - les formes les plus surprenantes de toutes : celles de l&amp;#39;invisible. D&amp;egrave;s lors, il peut r&amp;eacute;appara&amp;icirc;tre sous de multiples anamorphoses : coquillages (ex. lusembe : Porcellana parda Adanson), poissons (ex : mbumbye, Tetraodon pardus Boulenger), le &amp;laquo; crapaud &amp;raquo;, il&amp;ugrave;ky&amp;ugrave;lul&amp;ugrave;sh&amp;egrave; (il s&amp;#39;agit du Leptopelis rufus Boulenger de la famille des Hyperolinae, plus proche des grenouilles), l&amp;#39;agame, &amp;rsquo;ebalamusa, le cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on, k&amp;egrave;mba (pourtant animal lunaire), la plupart des f&amp;eacute;lins tachet&amp;eacute;s (sauf le lion, Ndambwe76 ou Tembwe), de nombreux oiseaux, depuis le coq jusqu&amp;#39;aux aigles, ma&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;bi. L&amp;#39;on pourrait croire que seule l&amp;#39;apparence de ces animaux, &amp;eacute;voquant, parfois de mani&amp;egrave;re troublante, la robe du l&amp;eacute;opard, ses couleurs, ses roses et ses ocelles, livre la raison pour laquelle ils ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s choisis - de pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres - comme anamorphoses du l&amp;eacute;opard. L&amp;#39;explication est beaucoup plus complexe, comme le prouve l&amp;#39;exp&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;rience suivante - qui nous renvoie &amp;agrave; ce que nous soulignions plus haut, relativement &amp;agrave; la pr&amp;eacute;gnance des moules culturels sur les moyens de perception et de cognition du monde sensible.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	42&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe24.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 165px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ILL. 20.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Un jour, croyant leur rendre hommage, j&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;talais sous les yeux de mes informateurs - tous Bam&amp;egrave; - la photographie d&amp;#39;un splendide l&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;rsquo;engwe. Pour &amp;eacute;viter toute m&amp;eacute;prise, j&amp;#39;avais pris soin d&amp;#39;indiquer que je n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tais pas l&amp;#39;auteur de cette image, car les Bam&amp;egrave; m&amp;#39;avaient pri&amp;eacute; de ne photographier ni leurs coiffes en peau de l&amp;eacute;opard, ni m&amp;ecirc;me les cr&amp;acirc;nes qu&amp;#39;ils en conservaient77. Or, &amp;agrave; ma surprise, mes interlocuteurs refus&amp;egrave;rent absolument de reconna&amp;icirc;tre &amp;rsquo;engwe dans l&amp;#39;animal dont je leur offrais la photographie. Apr&amp;egrave;s une interminable discus&amp;shy;sion entre eux, ils finirent par tomber d&amp;#39;accord pour y d&amp;eacute;couvrir la figure d&amp;#39;une poule ou d&amp;#39;un coq. Ils reconnaissaient en effet certaines tachetures sur la peau qui, &amp;agrave; la rigueur, auraient pu &amp;ecirc;tre celles du l&amp;eacute;opard, mais la photo, trop esth&amp;eacute;tisante sans doute, ayant &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;alis&amp;eacute;e dans un rayonnement de lumi&amp;egrave;re, ils n&amp;#39;y distinguaient ni moustaches78, ni (ou &amp;agrave; peine) queue. Ils ne pouvaient donc admettre qu&amp;#39;il s&amp;#39;agissait d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;engwe. Comme je leur faisais remarquer que leur &amp;laquo; poule &amp;raquo; avait tout de m&amp;ecirc;me des dents, ils voulurent bien &amp;nbsp;reconna&amp;icirc;tre que le &amp;laquo; bec &amp;raquo; de la &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; poule &amp;raquo; pouvait passer pour un substitut satisfaisant des dents du l&amp;eacute;opard79 et conclurent en conc&amp;eacute;dant que &amp;laquo; mon animal &amp;raquo; pourrait &amp;ecirc;tre un/e l&amp;eacute;opard-poule80.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	J&amp;#39;ai conclu de cette exp&amp;eacute;rience, mais l&amp;#39;on pourrait imaginer d&amp;#39;autres hypoth&amp;egrave;ses81, que ce que nous appelions, nous, le &amp;laquo; vrai &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard, celui qu&amp;#39;ont d&amp;eacute;crit Linn&amp;eacute;, Buffon, Erxleben, Cuvier, etc., n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait pas celui des Babembe et que &amp;laquo; notre &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait, pour eux, qu&amp;#39;une des anamorphoses, sans doute la mieux r&amp;eacute;ussie par la nature, du &amp;laquo; vrai &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard (invisible ?). D&amp;egrave;s lors, il devenait moins malais&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; comprendre comment, un peu partout dans le monde bantou82, l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e s&amp;#39;est impos&amp;eacute;e qu&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait nullement impossible que l&amp;#39;homme, m&amp;rsquo;t&amp;ugrave;, puisse rev&amp;ecirc;tir &amp;agrave; son tour la forme &amp;laquo; l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo; et s&amp;#39;emparer de son identit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	43&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La m&amp;ecirc;me exp&amp;eacute;rience ouvre &amp;eacute;galement une nouvelle piste d&amp;#39;investiga&amp;shy;tions sur les ph&amp;eacute;nom&amp;egrave;nes que l&amp;#39;on qualifie d&amp;#39;&amp;laquo; hallucina-tions &amp;raquo;. Lorsque mes informateurs (aucun n&amp;#39;a jamais &amp;eacute;prouv&amp;eacute; le moindre scepticisme sur ce point) affirmaient avoir vu leur p&amp;egrave;re initi&amp;eacute;, ou d&amp;#39;autres Bam&amp;egrave; du voisinage, sous leur forme &amp;laquo; vraie &amp;raquo; de l&amp;eacute;opard, nous n&amp;#39;avons jamais dout&amp;eacute; de leur parole. S&amp;#39;il suffit, en effet, de voir des dents, une moustache, une queue, etc., dans un contexte perceptif o&amp;ugrave; des ocelles sombres se d&amp;eacute;tachent sur un fond fauve, pour retrouver la forme &amp;laquo; l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;, alors, tout semble possible.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;homme peut donc devenir l&amp;eacute;opard, mais non par l&amp;#39;effet de sa volont&amp;eacute; seule ou par l&amp;#39;acte magique d&amp;#39;une transmutation instantan&amp;eacute;e. Cette m&amp;eacute;tamor&amp;shy;phose r&amp;eacute;sulte, au contraire, de la logique d&amp;#39;une tr&amp;egrave;s lente domestication qui consiste, pour le candidat, &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;approprier les anamorphoses concr&amp;egrave;tes, existantes du l&amp;eacute;opard (par exemple, la Porcellana parda dont il va &amp;ecirc;tre question) et s&amp;#39;identifier, par ailleurs, aux animaux qui (tels le pangolin ou le colobe) ont acquis la science des passerelles entre certaines zones pr&amp;eacute;cises de la carte logique du monde (avec plus de ma&amp;icirc;trise encore que le l&amp;eacute;opard), pour investir de mani&amp;egrave;re dialectique l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;gralit&amp;eacute; des cloisonnements de l&amp;#39;univers et conqu&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;rir ainsi la souverainet&amp;eacute; avec laquelle le l&amp;eacute;opard les contr&amp;ocirc;le tous.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le &amp;nbsp;Bwam&amp;egrave; du L&amp;eacute;opard&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Rituel initiatique et Rituel fun&amp;eacute;raire&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		des&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Hommes L&amp;eacute;opards Bembe&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Deuxi&amp;egrave;me &amp;nbsp; Partie&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		POL PIERRE GOSSIAUX&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe25.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 686px; height: 1843px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Universit&amp;eacute; &amp;nbsp;De &amp;nbsp;Li&amp;egrave;ge&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Anthropologie des Syst&amp;egrave;mes symboliques&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ethnos&amp;eacute;miologie de l&amp;rsquo;Art de l&amp;rsquo;Afrique centrale&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		LA TITULATURE DU BWAME&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chaque &amp;laquo; grade &amp;raquo; du Bwam&amp;egrave; correspond &amp;agrave; la prise de possession de l&amp;rsquo;identit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;un animal et de ses espaces de trajections. L&amp;#39;amalgame successif des identit&amp;eacute;s assum&amp;eacute;es ainsi progressivement se confond avec le parcours id&amp;eacute;al qui permet &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;homme d&amp;#39;investir les douze cases du damier de l&amp;#39;univers, pour devenir &amp;laquo; le &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard qui en ma&amp;icirc;trise l&amp;#39;ordre. Le choix des animaux, doubles possibles de l&amp;#39;homme, est arbitraire et varie d&amp;#39;un clan &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre. Toutefois, deux conditions au moins sont requises pour qu&amp;#39;un animal soit jug&amp;eacute; digne d&amp;#39;entrer dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave; : il doit appartenir &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ordre de l&amp;#39;ombre. Lorsqu&amp;#39;il est diurne (comme le colobe, par exemple), il doit classificatoirement pouvoir &amp;ecirc;tre renvoy&amp;eacute; au monde de la nuit. L&amp;#39;animal doit, par ailleurs, toujours se trouver investi de la puissance de convertir ses transgressions (obligatoires et, in se, nocives) en m&amp;eacute;diations positives. Il doit, en somme, cr&amp;eacute;er le chaos, mais restituer celui-ci au r&amp;egrave;gne de la culture (ce que le porc-&amp;eacute;pic, fumba, ne peut faire).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Nous donnerons tr&amp;egrave;s bri&amp;egrave;vement une id&amp;eacute;e des sch&amp;eacute;mas-types de l&amp;#39;ordre des grades du Bwam&amp;egrave; et de sa titulature, en indiquant les variantes les plus significatives que nous avons pu d&amp;eacute;couvrir au long de notre enqu&amp;ecirc;te.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Avant d&amp;#39;entrer dans le Bwam&amp;egrave; proprement dit, celui du L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;rsquo;Engwe, le candidat doit op&amp;eacute;rer un stage, sorte de noviciat, dans le Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa b&amp;ugrave;gabo (&amp;laquo; Bwam&amp;egrave; des compagnons-guerriers &amp;raquo;). Ce &amp;laquo; noviciat &amp;raquo; comporte douze phases. En voici les plus r&amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;latrices. Nous ne nous attacherons bri&amp;egrave;vement au sens (fort complexe) du rituel que lorsque celui-ci demande &amp;agrave; &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;eacute;clairci pour l&amp;#39;intelli&amp;shy;gibilit&amp;eacute; de la suite :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- &amp;nbsp;&amp;rsquo;AFETETE. Ce mot d&amp;eacute;signe une sorte de n&amp;oelig;ud de lianes, &amp;lsquo;ab&amp;ugrave;be, dispos&amp;eacute;es en forme de tores de Moebius (c&amp;rsquo;est un n&amp;oelig;ud de tresse, r&amp;eacute;alis&amp;eacute; avec un faisceau de cinq liens de rotang) que le candidat re&amp;ccedil;oit lorsqu&amp;#39;apr&amp;egrave;s s&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre acquitt&amp;eacute; de sa redevance (en ch&amp;egrave;vres et en sel), il se trouve autoris&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; entrer, &amp;ugrave;hingela, dans le B&amp;ugrave;habo.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL.21. &amp;nbsp;Figure de la page pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;dente : &amp;lsquo;Emongya ya L&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;ngy&amp;rsquo;o. Ceinture de L&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;ngyo. Elle est faite de chapelets de rondelles de coquille d&amp;rsquo;achatine (ma&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;m&amp;egrave; ma m&amp;rsquo;sanga), perc&amp;eacute;es en leur centre, tress&amp;eacute;s ensemble. L&amp;rsquo;achatine perc&amp;eacute;e, ancienne monnaie des Babembe d&amp;rsquo;origine lega, symbolise richesse, f&amp;eacute;condit&amp;eacute;, savoir et lucidit&amp;eacute;. Tress&amp;eacute;s ensemble, les chapelets d&amp;rsquo;achatine symbolisent la complexit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;rsquo;initiation, la solidarit&amp;eacute; qui doit unir les membres du Bwam&amp;egrave;, l&amp;rsquo;harmonie, la force, la science et la richesse qui en r&amp;eacute;sulte, pour toute la collectivit&amp;eacute;. Achatina Greyi Da Costa, fibres de raphia, ocre rouge. Lg.74 cm (Photo&amp;copy; de P. P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		46&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;afetete symbolise la com&amp;shy;plexit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;initiation, le rapport hi&amp;eacute;rarchique des &amp;eacute;tages (ascendants et descendants) du lignage patrilin&amp;eacute;aire du candidat, l&amp;#39;unit&amp;eacute; du village et son insertion dans le clan. Le candidat le porte en sautoir.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe26.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 336px; height: 390px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 22. &amp;lsquo;Afetete. N&amp;oelig;ud de tresse en lianes &amp;lsquo;ab&amp;ugrave;b&amp;egrave;. (Diam. : 35 mm.) Premier insigne de l&amp;rsquo;initiation. Il sera compl&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; chacune des &amp;eacute;tapes suivantes pour entrer dans la composition de longues tresses, li&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; des symboliques complexes. D&amp;rsquo;autres ouvrages tress&amp;eacute;s ou crochet&amp;eacute;s &amp;eacute;voquant des miniatures de filets de p&amp;egrave;che b&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;la et symbolisant, notamment, l&amp;rsquo;unit&amp;eacute; du Bwam&amp;egrave;, sont &amp;eacute;galement attach&amp;eacute;s &amp;nbsp;aux premiers grades de la hi&amp;eacute;rarchie (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- &amp;rsquo;AYA, &amp;laquo; feu &amp;raquo;. Le candidat doit faire du feu &amp;agrave; la mani&amp;egrave;re traditionnelle avec le b&amp;ugrave;ky&amp;rsquo;a : giration d&amp;#39;une baguette (dure) sur une planchette (tendre).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- CIO, &amp;laquo; cuisine &amp;raquo;. Le candidat doit cuire une poule noire, pourvue de toutes ses plumes, avec des bananes de l&amp;#39;esp&amp;egrave;ce toci (grosses) non &amp;eacute;pluch&amp;eacute;es. II mange cette cio.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- &amp;rsquo;UBUKULA &amp;lsquo;EBI, &amp;laquo; ouvrir la porte &amp;raquo;. Le candidat monte sur le toit en forme de c&amp;ocirc;ne (dont le centre est signal&amp;eacute; par un b&amp;acirc;ton en pointe) du l&amp;ugrave;bunga, soit de la case collective &amp;eacute;rig&amp;eacute;e en permanence au centre du village, qui, pour la circonstance, sert d&amp;#39;enclos initiatique. L&amp;agrave;, il est &amp;laquo; enfum&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; par les exhalaisons d&amp;#39;un feu allum&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur du l&amp;ugrave;bunga. Ce sont principalement les racines, les feuilles et l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce de l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;alembelembe (Croton megalocarpus Hutch.) qui alimentent le feu. Les racines de cet arbre, qui peut atteindre plus de trente m&amp;egrave;tres, sont r&amp;eacute;put&amp;eacute;es pour leur &amp;laquo; duret&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;83. De l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce &amp;eacute;mane une odeur l&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;rement naus&amp;eacute;abonde qui &amp;eacute;voque, pour les Babembe, l&amp;#39;odeur fauve du l&amp;eacute;opard. Le candidat doit ensuite d&amp;eacute;molir, avec violence, une partie du toit et, de cette ouverture, se lancer dans le feu (Trajection, en oiseau, du l&amp;eacute;opard c&amp;eacute;leste vers le soleil).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		47&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe27.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 370px; height: 336px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 23. Nyi&amp;rsquo;nge. L&amp;ugrave;semb&amp;egrave;. Porcellana parda Adanson. Poils de queue d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant. Ficelle l&amp;ugrave;c&amp;egrave;k&amp;egrave;. Lg de la coquille 85 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux, Tanganyika, 1985.).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- NYI&amp;rsquo;NGE, &amp;laquo; coquillage &amp;raquo;. Le candidat, enti&amp;egrave;rement nu et immerg&amp;eacute; dans l&amp;#39;eau d&amp;#39;une mare, &amp;nbsp;ou d&amp;rsquo;une plage immerg&amp;eacute;e du lac Tanganyika, doit saisir, avec la bouche, le grand coquillage l&amp;ugrave;sembe (Porcellana parda Adanson) que lui tendent, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;aide d&amp;#39;une sorte de canne &amp;agrave; p&amp;ecirc;che, ses parrains initiatiques.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le vernis de la Porcellana parda, de fond fauve, couvert de rosettes et d&amp;#39;ocelles brunes, rouges et noires, ressemble, comme son nom latin l&amp;#39;indique, &amp;agrave; la robe du l&amp;eacute;opard. Le candidat doit s&amp;#39;emparer avec les dents de cette chrysalide d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;engwe (dont la moustache est mat&amp;eacute;rialis&amp;eacute;e par des poils d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant). Ici, il observe le trac&amp;eacute; inverse de la phase pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;dente : il vient de l&amp;#39;eau, en poisson dent&amp;eacute;, vers la porcelaine-l&amp;eacute;opard diurne84. (Faut-il dire que le candidat &amp;eacute;choue r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement. Tout le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial doit &amp;ecirc;tre repris alors, depuis le d&amp;eacute;but &amp;ndash; avec nouveaux paiements.)&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		48&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe28.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 800px; height: 551px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 24. Porcellana parda Adanson (l&amp;ugrave;semb&amp;egrave;), baudrier en peau de l&amp;eacute;opard, dent de l&amp;eacute;opard dont la racine est envelopp&amp;eacute;e d&amp;rsquo;un filet contenant la charge ecunju (Photo&amp;copy; de Pol P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- LU&amp;rsquo;HEMBA NA M&amp;rsquo;MUSE, &amp;laquo; blanc avec rouge &amp;raquo;. Lorsqu&amp;#39;il a r&amp;eacute;ussi l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;preuve pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;dente, le candidat, une fois sorti de l&amp;#39;eau, est, alors qu&amp;rsquo;il est toujours mouill&amp;eacute; (eau/vert), v&amp;ecirc;tu d&amp;#39;un pagne, l&amp;ugrave;bindu, en feutre de m&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;a (Ficus thonningii Blume), et couvert de terre blanche (l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;hemba) que l&amp;#39;on pointille de rouge sanglant (h&amp;eacute;matite). Le front, en particulier, est trait&amp;eacute; de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;voquer celui du l&amp;eacute;opard. Les chevilles par&amp;eacute;es de t&amp;ugrave;kete (clochettes), il se rend dans le village, mb&amp;ugrave;ka, pour la phase suivante.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- MA&amp;rsquo;INA, &amp;laquo; danses &amp;raquo;. Il se dirige, tenant en main un fragment de tige de bambou et imitant la traque, les bonds du l&amp;eacute;opard, vers la place centrale du village puis, apr&amp;egrave;s &amp;ecirc;tre mont&amp;eacute; sur un arbre, il fond sur une proie imaginaire qu&amp;#39;il feint de mettre &amp;agrave; mort. Son aspect est alors &amp;eacute;minemment dangereux. Fixer le front du Muhabo, rouge et blanc, peut provoquer la folie et m&amp;ecirc;me la mort. Le son des t&amp;ugrave;kete a notamment le pouvoir d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;loigner le profane ou d&amp;#39;en conjurer le regard. Le Muhabo, soigneusement lav&amp;eacute;, entreprend ensuite le tour du village, afin de recevoir, en &amp;eacute;change de ses exploits chor&amp;eacute;graphiques, les cadeaux qui lui permettront de recouvrer une partie des biens offerts &amp;agrave; ses parrains initiatiques, biwenya, et peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, de r&amp;eacute;utiliser ceux-ci pour &amp;laquo; entrer &amp;raquo; dans le &amp;laquo; vrai &amp;raquo; Bwam&amp;egrave;, celui du &amp;laquo; L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un grand festin collectif, ponctu&amp;eacute; de danses parfois fr&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;tiques, qui, pour certaines, ont une signification &amp;eacute;rotique, et o&amp;ugrave;, dans certains clans, les grands masques des autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes sont exhib&amp;eacute;s, cl&amp;ocirc;t le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial, au terme duquel le Mhabo re&amp;ccedil;oit une coiffe sala, faite de plumes de poules et de coq. Il porte alors le titre de Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;&amp;egrave;sala.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		49&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Relevons rapidement que le parcours initiatique du Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa b&amp;ugrave;habo force le candidat &amp;agrave; p&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;trer dans toutes les parcelles logiques du monde, &amp;agrave; en franchir toutes les cloisons comme &amp;agrave; en transgresser les dimensions. L&amp;#39;initi&amp;eacute; retrouvera &amp;eacute;galement les principaux crit&amp;egrave;res (couleurs, son, odeur, mouvements, etc.) qui fondent les taxinomies scientifiques et magiques des Babembe. Ainsi :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- Le parcours du village &amp;agrave; la mare (ou rive du Tanganyika), suivi du retour au village, le m&amp;egrave;ne du jour &amp;agrave; la nuit et ses t&amp;eacute;n&amp;egrave;bres, ma&amp;rsquo;hulu, et de celles-ci au jour. Sa chute dans le feu et, de l&amp;agrave;, son passage sous l&amp;#39;eau l&amp;#39;obligent &amp;agrave; traverser les dimensions de la verticalit&amp;eacute; du monde, dans les deux sens : de haut en bas (toit, sol, sous l&amp;#39;eau) et de bas en haut (mare, village, haut de l&amp;#39;arbre).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		- Les quatre dimensions horizontales de l&amp;#39;univers constituent &amp;eacute;galement le chemin du trac&amp;eacute; initiatique : village, brousse, eau, for&amp;ecirc;t (bambou tenu en main et arbre du l&amp;eacute;opard).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le m&amp;ecirc;me chemin permet &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;initi&amp;eacute; de s&amp;#39;immerger dans les cinq substances qui composent l&amp;#39;&amp;Ecirc;tre : ciel (toit du l&amp;ugrave;bunga), vent (exhalaisons du feu), terre, eau et ombre.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tous ces &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments, sans oublier la r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence aux quatre couleurs, aux odeurs (feu), aux mouvements (danse, chasse mim&amp;eacute;e) et la musique des t&amp;ugrave;kete, permettent &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;initi&amp;eacute; de parcourir dans son int&amp;eacute;grit&amp;eacute; le cycle du l&amp;eacute;opard et d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave;, comme disent les initi&amp;eacute;s, &amp;laquo; roi dans tous les domaines, au ciel comme sur terre &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo;INITIATION AU BWAME BWA ENGWE&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Cependant, le Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;sala n&amp;#39;est encore qu&amp;#39;au stade du &amp;laquo; noviciat &amp;raquo;. Il pourra s&amp;#39;y trouver confin&amp;eacute; d&amp;eacute;finitivement s&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;a pas le droit, ou le pouvoir &amp;eacute;conomique, d&amp;#39;entrer dans le Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa &amp;rsquo;engwe. Dans ce cas, comme tous les autres membres du Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa b&amp;ugrave;habo, il aura pour fonction d&amp;#39;assurer les services que r&amp;eacute;clament les &amp;laquo; grands &amp;raquo; (bah&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave;) Bam&amp;egrave;. Il est, en effet, absolument interdit &amp;agrave; ces derniers de se livrer au moindre travail manuel. Les services du Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;sala seront donc multiples : ce seront ceux d&amp;#39;un domestique, d&amp;#39;un compagnon, d&amp;#39;un gardien, d&amp;#39;un &amp;laquo; assistant &amp;raquo;, l&amp;agrave; o&amp;ugrave; un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;engwe aura besoin d&amp;#39;aide.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		50&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;sala ne peut entrer de plein droit dans le Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa &amp;rsquo;engwe que si ses ascendants directs, dans la lign&amp;eacute;e patrilin&amp;eacute;aire, y ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; initi&amp;eacute;s. De m&amp;ecirc;me, en principe, il ne pourra convoiter d&amp;#39;autres grades que ceux dont ces derniers ont eux-m&amp;ecirc;mes &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; investis. Les secrets, mikongy&amp;rsquo;a, et les objets, bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o, li&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; ceux-ci font en effet partie du patrimoine familial, lequel transite d&amp;#39;une g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ration &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre sous forme d&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;ritage (b&amp;ugrave;ci&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;)85. &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chaque &amp;eacute;tape du parcours initiatique exigeait du candidat qu&amp;rsquo;il offre en dot initiatique un nombre de plus en plus &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; de ch&amp;egrave;vres (de 4 &amp;agrave; 10)86. Il arrivait que la famille tarde &amp;agrave; r&amp;eacute;unir un tribut aussi &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;. Un Mwam&amp;egrave; de haut rang se chargeait alors de tancer la famille. Il venait solennellement l&amp;rsquo;avertir qu&amp;rsquo;il avait r&amp;ecirc;v&amp;eacute;, m&amp;rsquo;macim&amp;ugrave;, &amp;nbsp;qu&amp;rsquo;une voix, le plus souvent celle d&amp;rsquo;un l&amp;eacute;opard, r&amp;eacute;clamait sans tarder un &amp;laquo; nouvel homme &amp;agrave; la t&amp;ecirc;te chauve &amp;raquo; (les Bam&amp;egrave; se rasaient compl&amp;egrave;tement). Si la famille ne se h&amp;acirc;tait point, elle encourrait la honte, &amp;lsquo;ab&amp;ugrave;l&amp;egrave; &amp;ndash; et davantage.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;De simples profanes se voyaient vou&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;initiation par &amp;nbsp;des r&amp;ecirc;ves semblables. Dans ce cas, il fallait en avertir le Bwam&amp;egrave;, qui soumettait le candidat impr&amp;eacute;vu &amp;agrave; un interrogatoire s&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;re. Un nouveau r&amp;ecirc;ve &amp;eacute;tait souvent exig&amp;eacute; pour que la demande f&amp;ucirc;t prise au s&amp;eacute;rieux.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Certains types d&amp;rsquo;envo&amp;ucirc;tement que les th&amp;eacute;rapies habituelles n&amp;rsquo;avaient pu apaiser, constituait &amp;eacute;galement un motif l&amp;eacute;gitime pour solliciter l&amp;rsquo;initiation, qui passait en soi pour un rem&amp;egrave;de souverain, &amp;egrave;icimba (l&amp;rsquo;on pouvait porter le titre de Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;nbsp;bicimba &amp;agrave; partir du grade Ngyo&amp;rsquo;a).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Enfin, si l&amp;#39;on &amp;eacute;tait suffisamment riche (la richesse s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;value principalement au nombre de ch&amp;egrave;vres que poss&amp;egrave;de la famille), l&amp;#39;on pouvait poser sa candidature au Pinji et aux grades suivants, jusqu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; celui du L&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;rsquo;Engwe. Dans ce cas, deux possibilit&amp;eacute;s se pr&amp;eacute;sentent : l&amp;#39;on s&amp;#39;initie en achetant un grade laiss&amp;eacute; &amp;laquo; vacant &amp;raquo; (par d&amp;eacute;faut d&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;ritier direct) par une famille dont on recevra les bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o (objets) et l&amp;#39;on ach&amp;egrave;te &amp;agrave; qui veut bien les vendre (mais il faut l&amp;#39;accord collectif du Bwam&amp;egrave;) ses mikongy&amp;rsquo;a. L&amp;#39;autre solution est d&amp;#39;acheter un grade et de faire sculpter de nouveaux bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o. Mais ce choix peut se r&amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;ler dangereux. Les Babembe consid&amp;egrave;rent qu&amp;#39;accumuler des richesses excessives constitue une faute morale grave86. Les &amp;laquo; nouveaux riches &amp;raquo; qui n&amp;rsquo;auraient d&amp;rsquo;autre titre &amp;agrave; faire valoir, une fois &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; ini&amp;shy;ti&amp;eacute;s &amp;raquo;, risquent ainsi de se voir remettre des objets factices et inop&amp;eacute;rants, soit par leurs formes (non traditionnelles) soit par le mat&amp;eacute;riau dans lequel ils sont sculpt&amp;eacute;s (bois inconvenant ou utilisation d&amp;#39;ivoire o&amp;ugrave; le bois s&amp;#39;impose, etc.), et, par ailleurs, des mikongy&amp;rsquo;a tout aussi faux. Il n&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;une seule garantie pour se pr&amp;eacute;munir de ce danger : c&amp;#39;est de se trouver un p&amp;egrave;re initiatique dont les titres ne sont pas contestables et d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tablir avec lui un pacte de sang87. Mais dans ce cas, le candidat est confront&amp;eacute; au m&amp;ecirc;me probl&amp;egrave;me que celui qui convoite un grade &amp;laquo;vacant&amp;raquo; : car aucun initi&amp;eacute; dont la descendance masculine est en vie n&amp;#39;accep&amp;shy;tera de priver celle-ci de son savoir au profit d&amp;#39;un &amp;eacute;tranger. A moins de trouver, dans ce partage, d&amp;rsquo;imposantes compensations pour sa famille &amp;ndash; entendue dans le sens le plus large du terme. Autrement dit, le &amp;laquo; nouveau riche &amp;raquo; s&amp;rsquo;engagera &amp;agrave; se d&amp;eacute;poss&amp;eacute;der de la presque totalit&amp;eacute; de ses richesses (il les retrouvera progressivement lorsqu&amp;rsquo;initi&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; son tour, il b&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ficiera des dons des nouveaux candidats).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		51&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Si donc, &amp;laquo; tout le monde &amp;raquo; peut acc&amp;eacute;der au Bwam&amp;egrave;, les voies n&amp;rsquo;en sont pas &amp;eacute;galement ais&amp;eacute;es. Il importe toutefois de remarquer que, dans tous les cas, l&amp;rsquo;entr&amp;eacute;e dans le Bwam&amp;egrave; repose sur un contrat : m&amp;ecirc;me l&amp;rsquo;h&amp;eacute;ritier l&amp;eacute;gitime d&amp;rsquo;un titre peut se voir r&amp;eacute;cus&amp;eacute; si les Bam&amp;egrave; jugent qu&amp;rsquo;il n&amp;rsquo;en est pas digne.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		*&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le premier grade, nous le savons, est celui de Pinji. Avant d&amp;#39;y acc&amp;eacute;der, le candidat doit rendre visite &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ensemble des Bam&amp;egrave; du clan, gagner leur sympathie et leur confiance, si ce n&amp;#39;est fait. Les conditions de son accession seront pos&amp;eacute;es durant ces visites. Elles comportent toujours une redevance en ch&amp;egrave;vres, en sachets de sel, bi&amp;rsquo;ike, et en bi&amp;egrave;re de banane.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le chant d&amp;#39;appel de la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o, la plus haute dignitaire du B&amp;ugrave;humbwa (ensemble des femmes mari&amp;eacute;es des Bam&amp;egrave;, m&amp;egrave;res de plusieurs enfants - id&amp;eacute;ale&amp;shy;ment quatre), marque le d&amp;eacute;but du c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial. Car ce sont les femmes qui r&amp;egrave;glent l&amp;#39;organisation de l&amp;rsquo;initiation. En principe, cet appel ne se fera que sur l&amp;rsquo;ordre d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave;. Le candidat, yab&amp;ugrave;cibwa &amp;nbsp;(&amp;laquo; appel&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;) se rend alors &amp;agrave; la case centrale du village, l&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;nga, et offre ses ch&amp;egrave;vres. Un grand repas a lieu. La c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monie peut d&amp;egrave;s lors commencer.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Voici, dans leur ordre hi&amp;eacute;rarchique, les titres principaux du Bwam&amp;egrave;, ou mieux, la liste des noms des animaux (et de leurs par&amp;egrave;dres principaux) auxquels le candidat devra successivement s&amp;#39;identifier - chaque fois, selon un c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial diff&amp;eacute;rent. Ces titres, miti, varient d&amp;#39;un clan &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre ; certains peuvent &amp;ecirc;tre intervertis &amp;nbsp;(&amp;lsquo;akanga, par exemple, peut venir imm&amp;eacute;diatement avant &amp;lsquo;engwe). Le sch&amp;eacute;ma que nous livrons est celui dont l&amp;#39;occurrence s&amp;#39;est le plus souvent offerte &amp;agrave; nos questions et &amp;agrave; nos observations. Nous donnons une liste non exhaustive des variantes les plus significatives. Nous int&amp;eacute;grons &amp;agrave; cette liste les &amp;laquo; par&amp;egrave;dres &amp;raquo; des animaux principaux, donateurs du titre.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		52&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/Capturedcran2011-10-0418.09.07.png&quot; style=&quot;width: 600px; height: 1293px; &quot; /&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		53&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		On le voit, selon qu&amp;#39;il accepte ou non certaines variantes, le Bwam&amp;egrave; d&amp;#39;un clan ou d&amp;#39;un sous-clan donn&amp;eacute; peut comporter de sept &amp;agrave; douze &amp;laquo; grades &amp;raquo;91. Il peut arriver qu&amp;#39;un Mwam&amp;egrave; meure de mani&amp;egrave;re impr&amp;eacute;vue : les nombreuses guerres qu&amp;#39;ont eues &amp;agrave; affronter, depuis plus de cent cinquante ans, les Babembe ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; l&amp;#39;occasion r&amp;eacute;p&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;e de drames semblables. Dans ce cas, le fils a&amp;icirc;n&amp;eacute;, abekyamwal&amp;egrave;, h&amp;eacute;ritera d&amp;#39;un seul coup (soit en un seul c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial) de tous les grades et bi&amp;#39;o &amp;#39;o de son p&amp;egrave;re. Il sera initi&amp;eacute; plus tard aux secrets, mikongy&amp;rsquo;a, mmbiso, par un Mwam&amp;egrave; choisi parmi ses oncles paternels.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe29.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 298px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 25. Objets paras&amp;egrave;mes du grade Ngyo&amp;rsquo;a (serpent). Sur un fond de peau de python &amp;rsquo;abwalo, sat&amp;ugrave;, enrichie de frises de plumes de poule, de gauche &amp;agrave; droite : sceptre m&amp;rsquo;combo, orn&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;un serpent mpele (Bitis nasicornis). Yeux de perles rouges (long. : 32cm). Repr&amp;eacute;sentation anthropomorphe-janus du serpent mamba luta (Naja Nigricollis). Charge magique dans la t&amp;ecirc;te, prot&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;e par un fragment de mica l&amp;ugrave;moni. Corps constitu&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;un fragment de peau d&amp;rsquo;hippopotame ngovu (long. totale : 56cm). Couteau d&amp;rsquo;incision de prestige. Manche d&amp;rsquo;ivoire repr&amp;eacute;sentant la L&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;ngy&amp;rsquo;o. Lame de fer. Gaine de bois garni d&amp;rsquo;une peau de python et de cercles de cuivre, &amp;agrave; laquelle est attach&amp;eacute;e une corne d&amp;rsquo;antilope contenant, notamment, la charge &amp;rsquo;ecunju (long. totale : 29cm). Art Sanze du secteur de Ngandja. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		On peut, tr&amp;egrave;s sch&amp;eacute;matiquement, d&amp;eacute;crire le trajet qu&amp;#39;accomplit le Mwam&amp;egrave; durant son parcours vers la conqu&amp;ecirc;te du royaume c&amp;eacute;leste, o&amp;ugrave; le l&amp;eacute;opard contr&amp;ocirc;le l&amp;#39;ordre du cosmos et ses rythmes cycliques. Apr&amp;egrave;s &amp;ecirc;tre entr&amp;eacute; dans la nuit du l&amp;eacute;opard en tant que Pinji, il se transforme en crocodile pour gagner le monde aquatique de la nuit (le crocodile &amp;eacute;tant un ancien compagnon de l&amp;#39;homme)92. D&amp;#39;ailleurs, le crocodile doit apprendre au Pinji &amp;agrave; avoir le &amp;laquo; c&amp;oelig;ur dur &amp;raquo; comme sa propre peau : les Bam&amp;egrave;, ma&amp;icirc;tres de l&amp;#39;ordre et de la justice, ne peuvent &amp;eacute;prouver de sentiments : ni sensiblerie, ni agressivit&amp;eacute;. Le cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on, animal de la lune, apprend au Pinji les secrets de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose : une technique que le Pinji ne saurait ma&amp;icirc;triser avec trop d&amp;#39;aisance tout au long de ses transmigrations progressives. Assimil&amp;eacute; au varan, qui l&amp;#39;entra&amp;icirc;ne de ses yeux incandescents dans le monde abyssal des morts, il se fait aider de l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne dont les songes parcourent les destins les plus myst&amp;eacute;rieux et les plus lointains93.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		54&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Puis, apr&amp;egrave;s s&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre trans&amp;shy;form&amp;eacute; en serpent, il traverse cet univers macabre o&amp;ugrave; errent confus&amp;eacute;ment les &amp;acirc;mes, d&amp;eacute;crit comme un monde de mar&amp;eacute;cages glac&amp;eacute;s (sur lequel, ajoutent ses adeptes, r&amp;egrave;gne le dieu &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga). M&amp;eacute;tamorphos&amp;eacute; ensuite en pangolin (ou en python-liane &amp;rsquo;aking&amp;iuml;), qui est en contact continuel avec cet antre chtonien, il en remonte pour acc&amp;eacute;der &amp;agrave; la for&amp;ecirc;t, dont le sombre horizon s&amp;#39;illumine &amp;agrave; peine des r&amp;ecirc;ves de cet &amp;laquo; oiseau &amp;raquo; d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cailles (le pangolin). La civette noire l&amp;#39;aide &amp;agrave; se d&amp;eacute;barrasser de l&amp;#39;odeur de mort qui le couvre encore94. Notons que le grade &amp;rsquo;asuli, tr&amp;egrave;s peu commun, s&amp;#39;investit d&amp;#39;une fonction analogue. Tout aussi rare, la mangouste, ngelengele, l&amp;#39;ennemie du serpent, a pour mission de temp&amp;eacute;rer, dans la mesure du possible (car elle-m&amp;ecirc;me est tr&amp;egrave;s cruelle, mais l&amp;#39;on sait qu&amp;#39;elle hait le serpent), les sombres desseins des Ba&amp;rsquo;ngyo&amp;rsquo;a (Hommes-serpents). Une premi&amp;egrave;re fois, le kele&amp;rsquo;ece (putois), ou &amp;lsquo;Asili (le zorille), le ram&amp;egrave;ne de la nuit au village. Mais la cruaut&amp;eacute; sanglante de cet animal, tueur effr&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute; de poules et de coqs, qu&amp;#39;il met &amp;agrave; mort pour le plaisir seul, comme le l&amp;eacute;opard (car il ne prend pas toujours la peine de les d&amp;eacute;vorer), lui interdit malgr&amp;eacute; son apparente soumission (tortue) et la splendeur rayonnante de son front, d&amp;#39;y demeurer. Le chien (et/ou la genette) le reprend dans l&amp;rsquo;ombre de la for&amp;ecirc;t.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Du reste, il lui faut encore conqu&amp;eacute;rir l&amp;#39;espace des frondaisons o&amp;ugrave; dansent les singes dont les tatouages de lumi&amp;egrave;re appellent l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;veil du soleil. Le buffle, le seigneur invisible de la brousse, guid&amp;eacute; par la chauve-souris, initi&amp;eacute;e aux humeurs capricieuses du soleil, le ram&amp;egrave;ne enfin au village, mb&amp;ugrave;ka. Il aura le pouvoir, d&amp;egrave;s lors, de s&amp;#39;emparer de cette pointe du toit du l&amp;ugrave;bunga qui, tel le bambou vertical des Bam&amp;egrave;, affirmera son autorit&amp;eacute; absolue sur le monde culturel. Aid&amp;eacute; du tambour, du gorille et du coq, il pourra alors, de ses clameurs sonores, contraindre le soleil &amp;agrave; na&amp;icirc;tre. Restitu&amp;eacute; au ciel, en l&amp;eacute;opard, il contr&amp;ocirc;lera l&amp;#39;ordre cosmique et culturel et leurs cycles respectifs gr&amp;acirc;ce au lion, au trag&amp;eacute;laphe, au crapaud et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant, ma&amp;icirc;tres successivement de la brousse, de la for&amp;ecirc;t, de l&amp;#39;eau et de la lune95.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		55&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe30.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 560px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 26. &amp;nbsp;&amp;lsquo;Abwa a mm&amp;rsquo;ebe. Chien de chasseur (la sonaille de bois est sculpt&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; son cou) fix&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; une peau de genette. A ses pieds, &amp;nbsp;graine de la liane &amp;lsquo;ab&amp;ugrave;b&amp;egrave; &amp;ndash; symbole de la &amp;laquo; duret&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; du c&amp;oelig;ur du Mwam&amp;egrave;. Bois (Crossopterix). Insigne de kele&amp;rsquo;ece (putois). M&amp;rsquo;muse. Noir de ricin. Lg. 215mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux). &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial de l&amp;#39;initiation &amp;agrave; chacun des grades du Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa &amp;rsquo;engwe comporte de dix &amp;agrave; quinze phases. L&amp;#39;on ne songe &amp;eacute;videmment pas &amp;agrave; les d&amp;eacute;crire ici. Toutefois, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;vocation de quelques-unes de ces &amp;eacute;tapes, que l&amp;#39;on retrouve dans le rituel initiatique de la plupart des grades, se r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le indispensable pour l&amp;#39;intelli&amp;shy;gence de la suite.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Apr&amp;egrave;s avoir &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; accueilli au l&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;nga, la case centrale du village, par les chants de l&amp;#39;ensemble des Bam&amp;egrave; et des Bah&amp;ugrave;mbwa, rythm&amp;eacute;s par le tambour de la L&amp;ugrave;kombo (une M&amp;ugrave;humbwa, nomm&amp;eacute;e &amp;eacute;galement &amp;laquo; &amp;rsquo;Asah&amp;ugrave; &amp;raquo;96, cach&amp;eacute;e, nue et masqu&amp;eacute;e, derri&amp;egrave;re une cloison), le candidat s&amp;#39;acquitte de la redevance en ch&amp;egrave;vres, sel, bi&amp;egrave;re, etc., qui a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; exig&amp;eacute;e de lui. Il allume le feu rituel &amp;lsquo;aya. Ce feu, outre sa valeur symbolique, servira &amp;agrave; la cuisson des ch&amp;egrave;vres (dont le partage, rappelons-le, concr&amp;eacute;tise dans sa logique, les structures fondamentales du clan) ainsi qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; la calcination de certains &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments dont la magie contribuera &amp;agrave; la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose du candidat. Les parrains, biwenya, pr&amp;eacute;sentent ensuite au candidat, en vrac, l&amp;#39;ensemble des objets, bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o, qui seront utilis&amp;eacute;s soit comme r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rences et supports mn&amp;eacute;moniques aux diverses le&amp;ccedil;ons qui vont &amp;ecirc;tre transmises, soit comme agents magiques et sorcellaires, aux secrets desquels le Mwam&amp;egrave; sera initi&amp;eacute; plus tard, dans le myst&amp;egrave;re de la case familiale. Dans les grades les plus &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;s, ces objets se comptent par centaines. Tous les r&amp;egrave;gnes de la nature s&amp;#39;y trouvent pr&amp;eacute;sents : pierres, terres, r&amp;eacute;sines, racines, fragments d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce, de tige, feuilles, coquilles, insectes, vers, dents, griffes, os, poils, ailes, plumes, pi&amp;shy;quants, doigts momifi&amp;eacute;s, peaux et cr&amp;acirc;nes des animaux les plus divers, en premier lieu, ceux auxquels le candidat est appel&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;identifier et de ses animaux par&amp;egrave;dres. Enfin, quelques artefacts : n&amp;oelig;uds, tresses, r&amp;eacute;ductions d&amp;#39;armes ou d&amp;#39;outils, barres et anneaux m&amp;eacute;talliques, clochettes et, plus rares, statuettes anthropomorphes et zoomorphes, ou encore, boucliers-masques, ngabo. Les Bah&amp;ugrave;mbwa utilisent &amp;eacute;galement quelques statuettes et &amp;nbsp;masques97.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		56&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe31.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 336px; height: 394px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 27. Insignes bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o du B&amp;ugrave;humbwa. De gauche &amp;agrave; droite, dent de buffle (pendentif), r&amp;eacute;duction de serpette &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo (bois et fer), figure d&amp;rsquo;une L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o masqu&amp;eacute;e (bois, kaolin, m&amp;rsquo;muse, enduits rituels), couteau mwele d&amp;rsquo;incision au manche anthropomorphe (bois et fer), pendentif en cuivre, pendentif fait d&amp;rsquo;une coquille d&amp;rsquo;Olividae (sp.) recelant tout deux des charges magiques. Ht de la Lubungy&amp;rsquo;o : 210 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; Le grand travail du Bwam&amp;egrave; - disent les initi&amp;eacute;s - est l&amp;#39;harmonie de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;. &amp;raquo; Les le&amp;ccedil;ons qui vont &amp;ecirc;tre livr&amp;eacute;es au candidat iront toutes en ce sens. Chacun des animaux (et ses par&amp;egrave;dres) dont le nom entre dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave; est l&amp;agrave; pour illustrer, &amp;agrave; sa fa&amp;ccedil;on, quelques-unes des qualit&amp;eacute;s que l&amp;#39;on exige d&amp;#39;un Mwam&amp;egrave; pour qu&amp;#39;il puisse effectivement faire r&amp;eacute;gner la paix et l&amp;#39;harmonie sociales. Dans l&amp;#39;ordre principal, c&amp;#39;est la &amp;laquo;puissance&amp;raquo;, b&amp;ugrave;basha, que l&amp;#39;on exige du Mwam&amp;egrave; (d&amp;#39;o&amp;ugrave; la pr&amp;eacute;sence du lion et du gorille parmi ses bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o). C&amp;#39;est de cette puissance que le Mwam&amp;egrave; r&amp;eacute;clame son autorit&amp;eacute;, &amp;lsquo;anawe. La croyance, re&amp;ccedil;ue par de nombreux peuples africains, &amp;agrave; la r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; de rapports magiques entre la &amp;laquo; puissance &amp;raquo; du roi et celle de la nature (la vie des plantes, des animaux et des &amp;ecirc;tres humains) &amp;eacute;tait partag&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; des degr&amp;eacute;s divers par les Babembe, et l&amp;rsquo;on admettait, on l&amp;rsquo;a vu, que l&amp;rsquo;initiation au Bwam&amp;egrave; &amp;eacute;tait sollicit&amp;eacute;e parfois pour ses seules vertus th&amp;eacute;rapeutiques, voire thaumaturgiques. Cependant, l&amp;rsquo;autorit&amp;eacute; du L&amp;eacute;opard reposait sur sa sagesse, malango, plus encore que sur sa puissance.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		57&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;L&amp;rsquo;exercice de la justice, b&amp;ugrave;lule, r&amp;eacute;clame tout d&amp;#39;abord une grande intelligence, bwenge, et, surtout, une impartialit&amp;eacute; absolue. C&amp;#39;est pourquoi, si l&amp;#39;on r&amp;eacute;clame du candidat qu&amp;#39;il se fa&amp;ccedil;onne &amp;laquo; un c&amp;oelig;ur dur comme celui du crocodile &amp;raquo;, une exigence ponctu&amp;eacute;e de grands coups de marteau d&amp;#39;ivoire98 sur la poitrine, on lui rappelle aussi avec insistance qu&amp;#39;il doit toujours &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;clair&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; (compr&amp;eacute;hensif) lorsqu&amp;#39;il prend une d&amp;eacute;cision et n&amp;#39;user qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; bon escient des moyens - redoutables - dont les arcanes vont lui &amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;eacute;voil&amp;eacute;s, pour imposer ses futures sanctions.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Si la sorcellerie wa b&amp;ugrave;tee (&amp;laquo; celle qui tue &amp;raquo;) constitue l&amp;#39;un de ces moyens, elle ne peut jamais l&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre qu&amp;#39;en recours ultime. (Les Bam&amp;egrave; refusent d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre qualifi&amp;eacute;s, sans plus, de &amp;laquo; sorciers &amp;raquo;.) Car, comme ils exercent la justice &amp;laquo; pour donner la vie ou rendre la mort &amp;raquo;, ils doivent &amp;eacute;galement pouvoir utiliser la sorcellerie b&amp;ugrave;bua (&amp;laquo; celle qui gu&amp;eacute;rit &amp;raquo;). Et nous savons en effet que les Bam&amp;egrave; &amp;nbsp;r&amp;eacute;clament, d&amp;egrave;s qu&amp;rsquo;ils sont Serpents, le titre de Mwene bicimba (&amp;laquo; ma&amp;icirc;tre des rem&amp;egrave;des &amp;raquo;). Tuer et gu&amp;eacute;rir s&amp;rsquo;inscrivent dans le prolongement paradoxal de la puissance sp&amp;eacute;cifique des animaux auxquels les Bam&amp;egrave; s&amp;rsquo;identifient successivement : &amp;ecirc;tres de la nuit et de jour, m&amp;eacute;diateurs encore imparfaits avant de devenir l&amp;eacute;opards.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Cependant, l&amp;#39;arme majeure des Bam&amp;egrave; demeure la persuasion et la dialectique, bien plus que la force. Car leurs pr&amp;eacute;rogatives couvrent le champ des conflits sociaux de toute nature : depuis la guerre ouverte entre clans rivaux, le meurtre, le vol, l&amp;#39;usurpation et les abus de pouvoir jusqu&amp;#39;aux simples querelles de m&amp;eacute;nage99. Il existe donc une v&amp;eacute;ritable id&amp;eacute;ologie de la communication du Bwam&amp;egrave;, non seulement verbale, mais gestuelle, visuelle et chor&amp;eacute;graphique.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thique sociale qu&amp;#39;il incombe au Bwam&amp;egrave; de faire respecter peut se r&amp;eacute;sumer en quelques pr&amp;eacute;ceptes simples. Fid&amp;eacute;lit&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la tradition, &amp;agrave; la parole et &amp;agrave; la volont&amp;eacute; des morts (ba&amp;rsquo;u, bashi&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;luca). Respect des anciens. Soumission &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; l&amp;eacute;gitime (celle des p&amp;egrave;res de famille, des chefs de clan, etc.). Primaut&amp;eacute; absolue des int&amp;eacute;r&amp;ecirc;ts de la communaut&amp;eacute; sur le profit individuel. Imp&amp;eacute;ratifs de g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rosit&amp;eacute; et de solidarit&amp;eacute;. Proscription de tout &amp;eacute;go&amp;iuml;sme, de toute vanit&amp;eacute;. Interdiction de r&amp;eacute;server pour soi seul tout ou une partie d&amp;rsquo;un gibier ou d&amp;rsquo;une p&amp;ecirc;che.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		58&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe32.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 197px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 28. &amp;lsquo; Esusanyo ya Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;asonge &amp;lsquo;a l&amp;ugrave;bunga (Figure d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave; &amp;agrave; la pointe de la case du L&amp;ugrave;bunga). R&amp;eacute;duction de serpe &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo. Peau de civette m&amp;rsquo;shimba. Le L&amp;ugrave;bunga est la grande case circulaire du centre du village. C&amp;rsquo;est l&amp;agrave; que se font les initiations et que le savoir et la sagesse se transmettent. Cette figurine repr&amp;eacute;sente l&amp;rsquo;id&amp;eacute;al de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;thique du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Bois (Crossopterix ?). &amp;nbsp;M&amp;rsquo;muse. L&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;hemba (kaolin). Fer. Diverses charges magiques (&amp;egrave;cunju). Ht. : 313 mm. Art bembe (influence lega) du secteur de Mtambala. (Photo&amp;copy; de &amp;nbsp;P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		59&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le respect des lois, mi&amp;rsquo;a&amp;rsquo;e - disent les Babembe - donne la vie. En transgresser l&amp;#39;ordre est se condamner &amp;agrave; la solitude, voire &amp;agrave; la mort. Leur soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; vit en effet dans l&amp;#39;angoisse permanente de la faim, un &amp;eacute;tat d&amp;#39;esprit qu&amp;#39;il faut imputer en partie aux guerres et conflits incessants que, depuis 1820100, les Babembe ont d&amp;ucirc; affronter. L&amp;#39;on mesure donc &amp;agrave; quel point cette morale, toute patriarcale, qui repose au fond sur l&amp;#39;imprescriptible logique du don et du contre-don, et que d&amp;eacute;fend le Bwam&amp;egrave;, a pu contribuer &amp;agrave; la coh&amp;eacute;sion, voire &amp;agrave; la survie d&amp;#39;une soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; menac&amp;eacute;e, in se, par l&amp;#39;extr&amp;ecirc;me fragmentation de ses compo&amp;shy;santes sociologiques et de ses structures politiques. L&amp;#39;on jugera peut-&amp;ecirc;tre que cette morale, fort simple et toute gnomique, est bien banale pour des &amp;laquo;l&amp;eacute;o&amp;shy;pards &amp;raquo;. Mais l&amp;#39;on verra qu&amp;#39;il importe aussi de domestiquer le l&amp;eacute;opard cosmi&amp;shy;que.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;initiation &amp;agrave; chacun des grades du Bwam&amp;egrave; est, disions-nous, l&amp;#39;occasion d&amp;#39;enseigner, de r&amp;eacute;p&amp;eacute;ter, de nuancer les pr&amp;eacute;ceptes de cette &amp;eacute;thique. Chaque animal fait l&amp;#39;objet de contes, de proverbes, de couplets chant&amp;eacute;s, et c&amp;#39;est par r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence &amp;agrave; ce bestiaire sp&amp;eacute;cifique autant qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thologie ou &amp;agrave; la psychologie de l&amp;#39;animal que se transmettent les le&amp;ccedil;ons.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;Agrave; titre d&amp;#39;exemple, tr&amp;egrave;s sch&amp;eacute;matiquement, nous prendrons celui de l&amp;#39;ini&amp;shy;tiation au varan, Mb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave;. L&amp;#39;on tire du tas de bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o &amp;eacute;tal&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; terre une repr&amp;eacute;sentation du varan, sa peau, des fragments d&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;ufs de crocodile, une corne de b&amp;eacute;lier, des plumes de touraco, m&amp;ugrave;kasa, des feuilles diverses (en particulier de l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;fumbefumbe &amp;nbsp;(Piliostigma thonningii Schum.), un sachet renfermant de la cervelle calcin&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne, etc.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe33.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 157px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 29. Mb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; (Varanus niloticus niloticus. Linn&amp;eacute;). Bois (Crossopterix febrifuga). Pigments : m&amp;rsquo;muse, kaolin, huile de mahahya (ricin). Les ocelles ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; transform&amp;eacute;s en croisillons afin de rendre le varan &amp;laquo; ob&amp;eacute;issant &amp;raquo;. (Cfr. Ill. 16. Lg. : 245 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		60&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le varan &amp;nbsp;(Varanus niloticus niloticus Linne) est un animal qui investit un champ symbolique extr&amp;ecirc;mement large aux yeux des Babembe. Nous le savons d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave;, un culte particulier, &amp;eacute;tranger au Bwam&amp;egrave;, lui est rendu par la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;rsquo;Eb&amp;ugrave;a ya Mtambala (ou Ilanda lya Mtambala), qui en mod&amp;egrave;le d&amp;#39;imposantes repr&amp;eacute;sentations en terre de termites. Vivant pr&amp;egrave;s des rivi&amp;egrave;res, ou dans le fond de l&amp;#39;eau (il hante, disent les Babembe, les ab&amp;icirc;mes du Tanganyika), c&amp;#39;est un animal classificatoirement nocturne. Il se d&amp;eacute;place, du reste, r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement la nuit, o&amp;ugrave; se refl&amp;egrave;te parfois l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;trange miroir de ses yeux. Il erre pourtant le jour aux abords du village ou dans ses all&amp;eacute;es o&amp;ugrave; il guette poules et coqs avant de se retrouver tout en haut d&amp;#39;un arbre, o&amp;ugrave; il peut rester plusieurs heures &amp;agrave; se gaver de soleil. Animal qui entra&amp;icirc;ne l&amp;#39;ombre dans le ciel, il passe pour &amp;eacute;minemment dangereux. Ses trajections chaotiques sont redout&amp;eacute;es. Mangeur de poissons et de mollusques, il se nourrit &amp;eacute;galement de petits mammif&amp;egrave;res et d&amp;#39;oiseaux. Sa pr&amp;eacute;dilection va cependant aux &amp;oelig;ufs de crocodile, dont il d&amp;eacute;truit syst&amp;eacute;matiquement les nids de sable.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe34.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 322px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 30. Mtambala. Dieu-varan et sa &amp;dagger; gardienne Mlenji. &amp;nbsp;L&amp;rsquo;on distingue, &amp;agrave; la &amp;nbsp;gauche de la figure, au niveau de la t&amp;ecirc;te, une sorte de sph&amp;egrave;re cannel&amp;eacute;e qui repr&amp;eacute;sente la coiffe (et la t&amp;ecirc;te) de son &amp;eacute;pouse. Des fragments de coquilles d&amp;rsquo;oeuf, offerts &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;esprit, sont &amp;eacute;galement visibles. Les plumes de coq, plant&amp;eacute;es dans la cl&amp;ocirc;ture yoko de Mtambala annoncent son caract&amp;egrave;re divin. Terre de termite mucibe et boue de la rivi&amp;egrave;re &amp;nbsp;Mtambala. Roseaux ise&amp;rsquo;e en croix &amp;agrave; la place du c&amp;oelig;ur. Secteur de &amp;nbsp;Mtambala. (Photo&amp;copy;de P.P. Gossiaux, &amp;nbsp;1973).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		61&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Lui, par contre, d&amp;eacute;pose volontiers ses &amp;oelig;ufs dans le creux des arbres. Il t&amp;eacute;moigne ainsi, non seulement d&amp;#39;une &amp;eacute;vidente sup&amp;eacute;riorit&amp;eacute; intellectuelle sur le crocodile, mais d&amp;#39;une aspiration vers une autre logique ; et ses transgressions dans le monde vertical pourraient, comme celles du pangolin, servir de mod&amp;egrave;le culturel &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;homme. D&amp;#39;ailleurs, on rappelle que le varan ne peut se passer de sa femelle, avec laquelle il s&amp;#39;unit en un mariage &amp;eacute;ternel, puisque la mort de l&amp;#39;un entra&amp;icirc;ne l&amp;#39;autre dans les profondeurs d&amp;eacute;finitives des mar&amp;eacute;cages mabenga de la nuit101. La fid&amp;eacute;lit&amp;eacute; est, avec la f&amp;eacute;condit&amp;eacute;, l&amp;#39;une des vertus que les Babembe appr&amp;eacute;cient le plus chez la femme. Toutefois, c&amp;#39;est sa peau ng&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave; qui constitue aux yeux des Bam&amp;egrave; la signature, &amp;rsquo;amanyi&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;co, principale du varan et qui inspire les commentaires les plus nombreux. Ils retrouvent dans le cuir de couleur vert-sombre, marqu&amp;eacute; de chatoiements jaun&amp;acirc;tres, constell&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;ocelles plus clairs, quelques traces de la robe du l&amp;eacute;opard. Mais ils sont surtout sensibles &amp;agrave; ses propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s m&amp;eacute;caniques, et plus particuli&amp;egrave;rement musicales et communicationnelles. Ils utilisent cette peau pour recouvrir certains de leurs objets pr&amp;eacute;cieux : manches d&amp;#39;armes de parade et leurs &amp;eacute;tuis, queues de buffle-sceptres. Mais avant tout, ils en tirent les fonds du tambour m&amp;ugrave;ngubile, qui donne un son clair, tr&amp;egrave;s puissant, et qui s&amp;#39;entend de loin. Ce tambour intervient toujours dans les r&amp;eacute;unions d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, mais &amp;eacute;galement lors des festivit&amp;eacute;s qui saluent le retour de le/la lune. Les battements du m&amp;ugrave;ngubile, qui appelle le village &amp;agrave; la joie et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;union, symbolisent la parole id&amp;eacute;ale du Mwam&amp;egrave; : elle doit &amp;ecirc;tre source de conciliation, de paix et de plaisir. L&amp;#39;on rappelle d&amp;#39;ailleurs, &amp;agrave; ce propos, sous la forme de proverbe &amp;laquo; qu&amp;#39;un tambour sans peau n&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;un morceau de bois mort &amp;raquo; pour laisser entendre qu&amp;#39;un village sans son Mwam&amp;egrave; est sans &amp;acirc;me. Un autre proverbe, &amp;laquo; celui qui parle sait entendre &amp;raquo;, rappelle au candidat que le varan l&amp;#39;aidera &amp;agrave; &amp;ecirc;tre toujours au fait des querelles, des disputes et des complots qui risquent de compromettre l&amp;#39;ordre. Un dicton un peu &amp;eacute;nigmatique : &amp;laquo; la parole de la peau surpasse celle de la langue : ikambo lya ng&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave; &amp;ugrave;heta &amp;rsquo;elalebale &amp;raquo;, renvoie au fait que le varan ne cesse de darder sa langue, tr&amp;egrave;s longue et bifide, hors de la gueule, car elle constitue pour lui un organe tactile : un Mwam&amp;egrave; doit mesurer ses paroles. Il utilise sa voix &amp;agrave; bon escient, comme la peau du varan, et ne doit pas sans cesse ouvrir la bouche pour dire n&amp;#39;importe quoi.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un conte que l&amp;#39;on ne manque pas de transmettre au candidat met en sc&amp;egrave;ne le varan et le touraco, mukasa (Musophaga rossae). En voici le r&amp;eacute;sum&amp;eacute; :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		CONTE DU VARAN ET DU TOURACO&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un jour, le varan va trouver son ami, le touraco. Arriv&amp;eacute;, il lui dit : &amp;laquo; donne-moi tes plumes, mon &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga (masque) veut danser ! &amp;raquo; Le touraco &amp;eacute;carte ses ailes, et le varan lui prend ses plumes. Plus tard, le touraco va trouver son ami le varan. Arriv&amp;eacute;, il lui dit : &amp;laquo; donne-moi ta peau, mon m&amp;ugrave;ngubile (tambour) veut danser ! &amp;raquo; Le varan refuse : &amp;laquo; Si tu prends mon corps, avec quoi vivrai-je ? &amp;raquo;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		62&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le touraco appelle le conseil des Bam&amp;egrave;. Ceux-ci, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir d&amp;eacute;lib&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;, disent au varan : &amp;laquo; ton &amp;rsquo;ecwab&amp;ugrave;ka (masque) s&amp;#39;est amus&amp;eacute; avec les plumes de ton ami. Le tambour de ton ami doit s&amp;#39;amuser avec ta peau ! &amp;raquo; Alors, les Bagabo (aides) du Bwam&amp;egrave; commencent &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;corcher le varan, qui se met &amp;agrave; hurler. Alors, les Bam&amp;egrave; lui disent : &amp;laquo; Quand ton ami t&amp;#39;a donn&amp;eacute; ses plumes, il n&amp;#39;a pas cri&amp;eacute;. Toi non plus, tu ne cries pas ! &amp;raquo; Le varan se tut et donc il mourut.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ce conte illustre l&amp;#39;une des r&amp;egrave;gles fondamentales de la logique du don et du contre-don : il ne faut jamais demander plus que ce que l&amp;#39;on peut restituer - le contraire &amp;eacute;tant &amp;eacute;galement vrai. Mais lorsque l&amp;#39;on b&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ficie d&amp;#39;un don quelcon&amp;shy;que, il faut &amp;ecirc;tre en mesure de le rendre, &amp;agrave; n&amp;#39;importe quel prix. Ces r&amp;egrave;gles s&amp;#39;appliquent &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ensemble des Babembe, mais aussi aux Bam&amp;egrave; : ils ne doivent pas exiger l&amp;#39;impossible - soit ce qu&amp;#39;ils ne sauraient eux-m&amp;ecirc;me offrir, m&amp;ecirc;me symbolique&amp;shy;ment.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Apr&amp;egrave;s son initiation semi-secr&amp;egrave;te au grade Pinji, qui pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;egrave;de celui du Mb&amp;ugrave;lu, le candidat avait d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; re&amp;ccedil;u de son p&amp;egrave;re (et/ou grand-p&amp;egrave;re) les secrets &amp;laquo; qui tuent &amp;raquo; de la ch&amp;egrave;vre. Ici encore, mais bien apr&amp;egrave;s la c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monie collective, il va apprendre de son p&amp;egrave;re, dans le secret, m&amp;rsquo;l&amp;ugrave;biso, les v&amp;eacute;rit&amp;eacute;s bien plus sombres du varan. Le fait est n&amp;eacute;cessaire, non seulement pour lui-m&amp;ecirc;me (puisqu&amp;#39; il est varan), mais parce qu&amp;#39;il sera peut-&amp;ecirc;tre appel&amp;eacute;, un jour, &amp;agrave; intervenir au cas o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;on abuserait des m&amp;ecirc;mes secrets - que certains sorciers batee connaissent aussi.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ici, ce n&amp;#39;est plus la peau qui s&amp;#39;offre comme la clef des signatures du varan, mais un trait de son comportement. L&amp;#39;on a vu que le varan faisait des &amp;oelig;ufs de crocodile son mets de pr&amp;eacute;dilection. Les nids que creusent les crocodiles, dans le sable, ont une profondeur de soixante &amp;agrave; soixante-dix centim&amp;egrave;tres. L&amp;#39;on sait qu&amp;#39;apr&amp;egrave;s y avoir d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute; ses &amp;oelig;ufs, en couches superpos&amp;eacute;es, le crocodile le referme et le camoufle soigneusement. Le varan doit donc (comme l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne, qui avait su d&amp;eacute;couvrir la chair enterr&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;homme) poss&amp;eacute;der un sens sp&amp;eacute;cial pour rep&amp;eacute;rer l&amp;#39;emplacement de ces nids. Les Babembe pensent que le varan peut &amp;laquo; entendre &amp;raquo; - avec sa peau - les &amp;oelig;ufs du crocodile ou se mettre magiquement en contact avec ceux-ci gr&amp;acirc;ce aux ocelles qui la recouvrent. De surcro&amp;icirc;t, des yeux du &amp;nbsp;varan &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;mane une &amp;laquo; ombre sanglante &amp;raquo; (c&amp;#39;est le seul animal &amp;agrave; qui les Babembe attribuent cette propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;) qui lui permet de voir &amp;agrave; travers le sable. Enfin, le varan peut &amp;eacute;galement rep&amp;eacute;rer les &amp;oelig;ufs en r&amp;ecirc;vant102. C&amp;#39;est donc un devin mlako. Mais un devin d&amp;#39;autant plus cruel, disent les Babembe, qu&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;ignore rien de la force de la tendresse qui lie une m&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; sa prog&amp;eacute;niture. Le choix de son aire de ponte, le soin avec lequel il veille sur ses propres &amp;oelig;ufs suffisent &amp;agrave; le prouver. D&amp;egrave;s lors, les Babembe n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;sitent plus &amp;agrave; penser que le varan est r&amp;eacute;ellement fou, &amp;laquo; poss&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;103, et qu&amp;#39;il a con&amp;ccedil;u le projet d&amp;eacute;ment de d&amp;eacute;truire toute autre prog&amp;eacute;ni&amp;shy;ture que la sienne. &amp;Agrave; commencer par celle de l&amp;#39;homme.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		63&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; En effet, lorsqu&amp;#39;une femme avorte, c&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; lui que l&amp;#39;on pense - avant tout autre esprit. Son regard suffit parfois &amp;agrave; provoquer cet accident. Mais, le plus souvent, il s&amp;#39;introduit, la nuit, dans l&amp;#39;esprit d&amp;#39;une femme enceinte et lui fait r&amp;ecirc;ver que son enfant meurt. Le r&amp;ecirc;ve lui-m&amp;ecirc;me peut provoquer l&amp;#39;avortement104. Dans le cas contraire, hant&amp;eacute;e par celui-ci, la femme enceinte ira trouver un m&amp;rsquo;tee (sorcier) qui lui donnera les substances n&amp;eacute;cessaires. Pis encore, lorsqu&amp;rsquo;une m&amp;egrave;re r&amp;eacute;siste &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;&amp;laquo; appel du varan &amp;raquo; et qu&amp;#39;elle met au monde son enfant, le varan s&amp;#39;introduira, de nuit, dans la case familiale. Couvrant l&amp;#39;enfant de son corps, il lui collera son museau aux narines. Puis, de sa langue bifide, il lui sucera le cerveau. L&amp;#39;enfant deviendra fou ou d&amp;eacute;bile.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Il existe plusieurs moyens pour se pr&amp;eacute;munir des r&amp;ecirc;ves du varan. Absorber notamment des feuilles de l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;fumbefumbe (Piliostigma thonningii Schum.), mwene bana, &amp;laquo; le ma&amp;icirc;tre des enfants &amp;raquo;. Ce petit arbre (5 &amp;agrave; 12 m&amp;egrave;tres de hauteur), autrefois connu sous le nom de Bauhinia, courant en Ubembe, est ais&amp;eacute;ment reconnaissable &amp;agrave; la forme circulaire de ses feuilles bilob&amp;eacute;es, au sommet &amp;eacute;chancr&amp;eacute;. Il est, selon les Babembe, d&amp;#39;une &amp;eacute;tonnante f&amp;eacute;condit&amp;eacute; car non seulement, il livre des graines en grand nombre mais se reproduit &amp;eacute;galement par ses rejets.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe35.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 303px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 31. Rameau de l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;fumbefumbe (Piliostigma thoningii Schum.) (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Ainsi, un seul &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;fumbefumbe peut engendrer rapidement tout un bosquet - une famille. Pour conjurer le varan - qui appr&amp;eacute;cie &amp;eacute;galement cette plante -, l&amp;#39;on dispersera des feuilles de cet arbre autour de la case. La femme enceinte en tirera des d&amp;eacute;coctions qu&amp;#39;elle absorbera et dont elle se servira pour sa toilette intime105.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		64&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour emp&amp;ecirc;cher le varan de s&amp;#39;emparer des r&amp;ecirc;ves d&amp;#39;une femme enceinte, l&amp;#39;on donnera &amp;agrave; celle-ci une potion de cendres de cervelle d&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne et de terre blanche, d&amp;eacute;lay&amp;eacute;e dans de l&amp;#39;eau. Les r&amp;ecirc;ves de l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne ne trompent jamais et le varan ne saurait s&amp;#39;en emparer pour en fausser le sens. Lorsqu&amp;#39;un avortement s&amp;#39;est produit, et qu&amp;#39;il est imput&amp;eacute; au varan, le couple auquel ce malheur est arriv&amp;eacute; doit se pr&amp;eacute;munir contre tout risque futur. Pour cela, l&amp;#39;un des rem&amp;egrave;des les plus efficaces est d&amp;#39;absorber, en commun, une boulette de terre de termites m&amp;ecirc;l&amp;eacute;e de sang de mouton, m&amp;rsquo;mo&amp;rsquo;o. Le mouton est l&amp;#39;un des tr&amp;egrave;s rares animaux qu&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; aime &amp;raquo; le varan. Sans doute parce que le mouton, animal embl&amp;eacute;matique de l&amp;#39;arc-en-ciel, symbolise les deux mondes entre lesquels il transite : l&amp;#39;eau et le ciel. De &amp;nbsp;nombreux esprits, autres que le varan, sont rendus responsables de la mort des enfants. Signalons une derni&amp;egrave;re recette anti-abortive, propre au Bwam&amp;egrave; : &amp;eacute;cailles de pangolin tir&amp;eacute;es de la coiffe d&amp;#39;un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;abanga, calcin&amp;eacute;es et m&amp;ecirc;l&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; diverses plantes dont &amp;lsquo;ateta (Polygonom. s.p.). Tous ces secrets, le Mwam&amp;egrave; wa mb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; (Bah&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave;) &amp;nbsp;les recueille bien apr&amp;egrave;s son initiation &amp;laquo; officielle &amp;raquo;. Il importe donc de revenir &amp;agrave; celle-ci et aux &amp;eacute;tapes principales du c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial de la m&amp;eacute;tamor&amp;shy;phose. Celui-ci se d&amp;eacute;compose en deux phases.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		LE RITUEL DE LA METAMORPHOSE&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La premi&amp;egrave;re r&amp;eacute;alise mat&amp;eacute;riellement la symbiose du candidat et de l&amp;#39;ani&amp;shy;mal auquel il cherche &amp;agrave; s&amp;#39;identifier, dans lequel, disent les Babembe, il se transf&amp;egrave;re, yahangulwa. L&amp;#39;on pr&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;ve donc quelques fragments de cet animal (le plus souvent de la peau, du cerveau et du c&amp;oelig;ur) que l&amp;#39;on m&amp;eacute;lange &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments tir&amp;eacute;s des animaux par&amp;egrave;dres et &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres substances, diff&amp;eacute;rentes selon les grades. (Pour le varan, toutes les substances dont il a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; question plus haut interviennent dans le m&amp;eacute;lange.) Si la mixture ainsi r&amp;eacute;alis&amp;eacute;e est absorbable comme telle, le candidat est invit&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;avaler. On peut la d&amp;eacute;layer dans de la bi&amp;egrave;re de banane. Dents, griffes, &amp;eacute;cailles (tortue, pangolin, etc.), plumes, etc. doivent parfois &amp;ecirc;tre ing&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es. L&amp;#39;on ne saurait imaginer que ces &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments le soient comme tels, per os. L&amp;#39;on proc&amp;egrave;de donc &amp;agrave; leur calcination b&amp;ugrave;ceka106. Ces cendres peuvent &amp;eacute;galement &amp;ecirc;tre aval&amp;eacute;es avec de la bi&amp;egrave;re.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		En vue de garantir la r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; absolue de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose, ces cendres sont ins&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es sous la peau, pr&amp;eacute;alablement incis&amp;eacute;e, gangy&amp;rsquo;o. (Les Babembe pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;egrave;rent aujourd&amp;#39;hui le terme fran&amp;ccedil;ais : &amp;laquo;vaccination&amp;raquo;.) Les deux modes d&amp;#39;ingestion peuvent d&amp;#39;ailleurs &amp;ecirc;tre combin&amp;eacute;s. C&amp;#39;est le cas lors du passage au grade supr&amp;ecirc;&amp;shy;me, celui d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Engwe.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		65&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe36.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 277px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 32. Figure de la Lubungy&amp;rsquo;o masqu&amp;eacute;e. Bois, anneaux de m&amp;eacute;tal. Patine : cengwe et m&amp;rsquo;muse. Sculpture probable de Sambao. Ht. c. 40 cm. (Photo&amp;copy; dont l&amp;rsquo;auteur est inconnu. Ancienne collection &amp;dagger; H. Kamer).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		66&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe37.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 245px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 33. Masque &amp;lsquo;eluba ou &amp;lsquo;acwe &amp;lsquo;a Lubungy&amp;rsquo;o. Bois. Patine de ricin. M&amp;rsquo;muse. Poudre de kaolin et d&amp;rsquo; Iridina Spekii. Photographi&amp;eacute; sur &amp;nbsp;une peau de serval hombo, autre insigne des Bahumbwa. Ht. 222 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		67&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Lorsque vient la phase b&amp;ugrave;hangulwa (&amp;laquo; le fait d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre transf&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;) du candidat &amp;rsquo;Engwe, l&amp;#39;on fait sortir au dehors l&amp;rsquo;ensemble des autres Bam&amp;egrave;. Seules, en principe, restent dans la case initiatique, la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o, quelques autres Ba&amp;rsquo;h&amp;ugrave;mbwa qui sont l&amp;agrave; pour l&amp;#39;aider, et la tambourineuse, L&amp;ugrave;kombo (ou Asah&amp;ugrave;), qui porte alors un masque circulaire qui repr&amp;eacute;sente le soleil et le/la lune r&amp;eacute;concili&amp;eacute;s. La L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o se couvre le visage d&amp;#39;un masque circulaire ou ovale. Elle se livre ensuite &amp;agrave; une danse complexe, v&amp;eacute;ritable performance chor&amp;eacute;graphique, dont les gestes symbolisent les deux p&amp;ocirc;les de la passion et de la raison, du chaos et de l&amp;#39;ordre. C&amp;#39;est entre ces deux p&amp;ocirc;les, qui repr&amp;eacute;sentent &amp;eacute;galement les forces antinomiques du l&amp;eacute;opard (soleil et lune), que s&amp;#39;inscrivent l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;quilibre et l&amp;#39;harmonie du cosmos. Ensuite, tout en se frottant les seins et le ventre soit d&amp;#39;un masque de r&amp;eacute;sine, cengwe, soit d&amp;#39;une statuette qui mat&amp;eacute;rialise la lign&amp;eacute;e agnatique des anc&amp;ecirc;tres-l&amp;eacute;opards, elle mime les gestes de l&amp;#39;amour, puis feint d&amp;#39;accoucher : les anc&amp;ecirc;tres acceptent de voir mettre au monde un nouveau &amp;laquo; L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;. Il importe de dire, d&amp;egrave;s &amp;agrave; pr&amp;eacute;sent, pour comprendre la &amp;laquo; r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; de cet accouchement, qu&amp;#39;avant l&amp;#39;organisation du c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial, la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o avait d&amp;ucirc; s&amp;#39;introduire, dans les parties les plus intimes de son corps, diverses substances destin&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la f&amp;eacute;conder magiquement et &amp;agrave; accoucher. Avant d&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;grer ces &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments, elle avait &amp;eacute;galement d&amp;ucirc; se purifier soigneusement &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;aide de d&amp;eacute;coctions de &amp;laquo; sel &amp;raquo; de feuilles d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;ateko (Oxalys corniculata LINN&amp;Eacute;), du suc de yenda (Coreopsis oligoflora LEW.) et de la myrrhe d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;asu&amp;rsquo;u (Commiphora africana JACQ.)107. Ensuite, la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o rase int&amp;eacute;gralement le candidat, t&amp;ecirc;te et pubis. Elle ne lui laisse qu&amp;#39;une mince m&amp;egrave;che de cheveux, &amp;agrave; laquelle la coiffe, &amp;rsquo;e&amp;rsquo;ombo, de l&amp;eacute;opard sera fix&amp;eacute;e. Ces cheveux et ces poils seront calcin&amp;eacute;s en m&amp;eacute;lange avec un morceau de cervelle et de c&amp;oelig;ur de l&amp;eacute;opard, des fragments de peau de lion et de l&amp;#39;antilope tundu. Avec un petit couteau tr&amp;egrave;s effil&amp;eacute;, dont le manche est sculpt&amp;eacute; en forme de statuette, la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o incise alors le candidat aux endroits suivants : front (deux incisions), nuque, &amp;eacute;paules, c&amp;oelig;ur, articulation du poignet droit108 et cheville droite. La L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o s&amp;#39;incise elle-m&amp;ecirc;me sous le nombril, de mani&amp;egrave;re assez profonde pour que le sang coule en quantit&amp;eacute; suffisante et puisse &amp;ecirc;tre m&amp;ecirc;l&amp;eacute; aux cendres des substances pr&amp;eacute;alablement calcin&amp;eacute;es. Elle ins&amp;egrave;re ensuite, de mani&amp;egrave;re aussi profonde que possible, le m&amp;eacute;lange dans les parties incis&amp;eacute;es du corps du candidat et introduit &amp;eacute;galement une partie de la mixture sacr&amp;eacute;e dans les parties intimes de son corps.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Le traumatisme provoqu&amp;eacute; par une m&amp;eacute;tamorphose aussi brutale pourrait plonger le nouveau Mwam&amp;egrave; dans la folie, celle de l&amp;#39;espace o&amp;ugrave; &amp;laquo; Le &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard n&amp;#39;exerce sa cruaut&amp;eacute; sanguinaire que pour entra&amp;icirc;ner l&amp;#39;ordre social - et cosmique - dans le chaos. Pour qu&amp;#39;elle s&amp;#39;accompagne de la puissance ordonnatrice, disciplinaire du grand f&amp;eacute;lin, la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose doit &amp;ecirc;tre partiellement temp&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;e ; c&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; cette condition que le nouveau Mwam&amp;egrave; pourra contr&amp;ocirc;ler son propre pouvoir, b&amp;ugrave;basha. Cette seconde phase se d&amp;eacute;veloppe elle-m&amp;ecirc;me en plusieurs s&amp;eacute;quences.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		68&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe38.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 191px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 34. Couteau Mwele notamment utilis&amp;eacute; par la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o pour inciser les Bangyo&amp;rsquo;a (Hommes-serpents) et les grad&amp;eacute;s suivants jusqu&amp;rsquo;aux Ba&amp;rsquo;engwe (Hommes-l&amp;eacute;opards). D&amp;rsquo;apr&amp;egrave;s la tradition, il faisait partie des regalia d&amp;rsquo;un ancien &amp;laquo; roi &amp;raquo; du Masanze (premi&amp;egrave;re moiti&amp;eacute; du 19e si&amp;egrave;cle). Le couteau a, tout d&amp;rsquo;abord, servi &amp;agrave; subinciser le candidat au grade Ngyo&amp;rsquo;a. Art du secteur de Ngandja. Voir Ill. 25 (Photo&amp;copy; de J. DONJEAN).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tout d&amp;#39;abord, le nouveau Mwam&amp;egrave; doit consommer un repas109 fait de cervelles et de viande de ch&amp;egrave;vres : nous savons d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; que celle-ci est une sorte de paradigme de l&amp;#39;ordre culturel, la r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence privil&amp;eacute;gi&amp;eacute;e de cette &amp;eacute;thique du don et du contre-don qui constitue l&amp;#39;un des socles de l&amp;#39;anthropologie bembe.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		69&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le corps de la femme demeure, pour les Babembe, l&amp;#39;objet d&amp;#39;ex&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;ses nombreuses et contradictoires. Classificatoirement, cependant, la femme ap&amp;shy;partient au cycle de la lumi&amp;egrave;re du matin. Elle est donc la vie, la source &amp;agrave; la fois r&amp;eacute;elle et symbolique de toute nourriture, &amp;laquo; la m&amp;egrave;re des poussins &amp;raquo;. Toutefois, nous savons que ce qu&amp;#39;elle engendre passe toujours pour imparfait. Ses enfants, doivent &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;laquo; reforg&amp;eacute;s &amp;raquo; par l&amp;rsquo;homme, notamment lors du B&amp;ugrave;tende, la circoncision.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;on est donc tent&amp;eacute; de penser que l&amp;#39;homme &amp;laquo; ach&amp;egrave;ve &amp;raquo; culturellement ce que la femme a livr&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la nature seule. Dans le rituel que nous allons d&amp;eacute;crire, il convient de songer &amp;agrave; une autre opposition : celle qui enferme la femme dans l&amp;#39;ordre de l&amp;#39;harmonie et de la soumission et qui classe l&amp;#39;homme, au contraire, dans celui de la force et de la violence.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Si la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o doit introduire dans son propre corps les m&amp;ecirc;mes substances qui ont provoqu&amp;eacute; la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose du Mwam&amp;egrave;, c&amp;#39;est que l&amp;#39;on attend de la myst&amp;eacute;rieuse alchimie de son ventre qu&amp;#39;elle transforme celles-ci en agents magiques de paix et d&amp;#39;ordre. Elle &amp;laquo; refroidit &amp;raquo;, temp&amp;egrave;re le &amp;laquo; feu &amp;raquo; des incisions et de la violence masculine. Le Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;engwe doit donc avoir un contact sexuel110 avec la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; ce que la violence et la chaleur &amp;nbsp;des forces qui se sont concentr&amp;eacute;es dans sa semence, l&amp;ugrave;buto, soit impr&amp;eacute;gn&amp;eacute;e de ces agents transmut&amp;eacute;s par la femme. Le Mwam&amp;egrave; pourra d&amp;egrave;s lors, exercer son pouvoir &amp;laquo; sans condition &amp;raquo; - comme disent les Babembe -, soit avec la plus grande libert&amp;eacute;, ou la plus grande ma&amp;icirc;trise.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour &amp;eacute;clairer ceci, nous &amp;eacute;voquerons rapidement le cas, assez amusant, de l&amp;#39;initiation au p&amp;oelig;cilogale (putois), Kele&amp;rsquo;ece. Selon le mythe, le p&amp;oelig;cilogale aurait exig&amp;eacute; lui-m&amp;ecirc;me d&amp;#39;entrer dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Poursuivi par un chasseur et son chien, il &amp;eacute;tait parvenu &amp;agrave; leur &amp;eacute;chapper. Le chasseur s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tant endormi de fatigue, le p&amp;oelig;cilogale &amp;eacute;tait revenu se venger et, d&amp;#39;un coup de gaz dans les narines, avait tu&amp;eacute; celui-ci, en clamant que : &amp;laquo; d&amp;eacute;sormais, on n&amp;#39;entrerait plus au Bwam&amp;egrave; sans passer par lui &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe39.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 123px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL 35. Le putois (ou zorille) de l&amp;rsquo;illustration suivante (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		70&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe40.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 309px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 36. Objets paras&amp;egrave;mes du grade Kele&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;ece (Poecilogale albinucha). Fix&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; une peau de genette, de bas en haut : sommet de courge contenant des charges magiques, figurine en bois du Kele&amp;rsquo;ece (long. : 16,2cm), grosse perle rouge d&amp;rsquo;importation, symbole de la cruaut&amp;eacute; du Kelece, masque de hibou cwecwe en bois de calebasse (diam. 10,2cm) auquel sont fix&amp;eacute;s des poils d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant, des plumes de touraco, de perroquet et des frises de pennes de plumes de poule. Il dissimule une dent de l&amp;eacute;opard. Sur la droite, on distingue l&amp;rsquo;avant-corps de la figurine de chien mbwa &amp;nbsp;reproduite plus haut (long. : 19,5cm). Art du secteur de l&amp;rsquo;Itombwe. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les Babembe &amp;eacute;prouvent une grande admiration pour cet animal et son fr&amp;egrave;re proche, le zorille ou moufette (Ictonyx striatus (Perry)) (tous deux ont la fourrure sign&amp;eacute;e de nombreuses marques cosmiques), qui peuvent &amp;laquo; tuer &amp;raquo;, ou se d&amp;eacute;fendre sans armes &amp;laquo; m&amp;eacute;caniques &amp;raquo; apparentes. Le l&amp;eacute;opard lui-m&amp;ecirc;me recule d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pouvante lorsqu&amp;#39;un putois (ou une moufette) manifeste sa &amp;laquo;puissance&amp;raquo;. &amp;nbsp;Les gaz du putois constituent le plus s&amp;ucirc;r moyen de rompre une tentative de &amp;laquo; communi&amp;shy;cation &amp;raquo; agressive.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		71&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les Babembe ont imagin&amp;eacute; que cette force magique devrait pouvoir s&amp;#39;inverser de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; donner au Mwam&amp;egrave; &amp;laquo; putois &amp;raquo; toute la s&amp;eacute;duction de la persuasion - celle d&amp;#39;une communication positive. En s&amp;#39;identifiant, seul, au &amp;laquo; putois &amp;raquo;, le Mwam&amp;egrave; risque de n&amp;#39;avoir d&amp;#39;autre force que celle de &amp;laquo; la parole puante &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;alchimie de la femme transforme cette parole en saveurs persuasi&amp;shy;ves.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe411.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 336px; height: 376px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 37. Type de masque de l&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;asah&amp;ugrave;, la tambourineuse du Bu&amp;rsquo;umbwa. La circularit&amp;eacute; du masque impose l&amp;rsquo;union et l&amp;rsquo;harmonie. La couleur uniforme brune unit &amp;eacute;galement le rouge et le noir, horizons du soleil cr&amp;eacute;pusculaire et de la lune. Lors des initiations, l&amp;rsquo;on apprend en effet qu&amp;rsquo;au sein du Bwam&amp;egrave;, la lune et le soleil, aujourd&amp;rsquo;hui ennemis, doivent se r&amp;eacute;concilier afin de renouer avec le temps des origines &amp;ndash; o&amp;ugrave; ils &amp;eacute;taient jumeaux. Bois. Pigments. Sang. &amp;Oslash; : c. 23 cm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux, 1985).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le rapport sexuel que le Mwam&amp;egrave; doit avoir avec la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o ne peut &amp;ecirc;tre complet. Le Mwam&amp;egrave; doit se ma&amp;icirc;triser111 de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; ne pas abandonner sa semence au corps de sa partenaire, mais sur un feutre d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce (ou une calebasse, ou &amp;nbsp;encore &amp;ndash; tr&amp;egrave;s rarement - une coupe c&amp;eacute;phalomorphe). La L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o recueille ensuite, sur le m&amp;ecirc;me feutre, les &amp;eacute;manations de son propre corps. Soigneusement m&amp;eacute;lang&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; la semence de l&amp;#39;homme, celles-ci formeront ce que les Babembe appellent le m&amp;rsquo;t&amp;egrave;ma wa Mwam&amp;egrave; : le &amp;laquo; c&amp;oelig;ur du Roi &amp;raquo;. D&amp;eacute;lay&amp;eacute; dans un bol de bi&amp;egrave;re de banane, il sera consomm&amp;eacute; par les deux partenaires.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		72&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dilu&amp;eacute;e, une nouvelle fois, dans une plus grande calebasse, avec le reste des substances calcin&amp;eacute;es qui ont servi &amp;agrave; la &amp;laquo; vaccination &amp;raquo;, cette boisson sera offerte &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ensemble des Bam&amp;egrave;, demeur&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ext&amp;eacute;rieur de la case initiatique, et m&amp;ecirc;me aux simples Bam&amp;egrave; du Bugabo (servants). C&amp;#39;est, disent les Babembe, pour &amp;laquo; plonger dans la soumission &amp;raquo; (au Mwam&amp;egrave; nouvellement intronis&amp;eacute;) tous ceux qui communieront au &amp;laquo; c&amp;oelig;ur du Roi &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le nouveau &amp;laquo; L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo; a d&amp;#39;autres ennemis &amp;agrave; soumettre : ses propres pr&amp;eacute;dateurs. Nous savons d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; que le crocodile compte parmi ceux-ci. Il en est deux autres (outre l&amp;#39;homme) : le python et l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne. Le Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;rsquo;engwe consomme donc un dernier repas, fait des trois c&amp;oelig;urs du crocodile, ngwena, du python, &amp;rsquo;abwalo et de l&amp;#39;hy&amp;egrave;ne, &amp;lsquo;am&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;ng&amp;ugrave;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o lui fixe ensuite sa &amp;laquo; couronne &amp;raquo; &amp;eacute;&amp;rsquo;ombo constitu&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;une peau de l&amp;eacute;opard. En principe, il ne peut jamais l&amp;#39;enlever112. Car il est &amp;laquo; d&amp;eacute;finitivement &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard. D&amp;egrave;s ce moment, il pourra se transformer en &amp;laquo; vrai &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard ou envoyer &amp;rsquo;Engwe contre un agresseur quelconque.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe42.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 315px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 38 Amulettes en collier d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave; wa &amp;lsquo;engwe. A droite : corne d&amp;rsquo;antilope naine contenant la charge magique ecunju, destin&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; rendre invisible. Au centre : petit filet l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;la&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;la &amp;nbsp;o&amp;ugrave; sont enferm&amp;eacute;s des charmes propres &amp;agrave; transformer en substance l&amp;rsquo;&amp;ecirc;tre invisible. A gauche : griffe de l&amp;eacute;opard (l&amp;ugrave;kyala) qui donne &amp;agrave; cette substance la forme du f&amp;eacute;lin. Le mwam&amp;egrave; &amp;nbsp;touche successivement ces amulettes en pronon&amp;ccedil;ant les incantations appropri&amp;eacute;es. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux, 1985).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		73&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Il convient sans doute de faire remarquer ici que, loin d&amp;rsquo;&amp;ecirc;tre particuli&amp;egrave;re aux Babembe, l&amp;rsquo;implication d&amp;rsquo;actes de nature sexuelle dans le rituel initiatique, se retrouve aupr&amp;egrave;s de nombreux autres peuples de la zone des Grands Lacs &amp;ndash; dans toute l&amp;rsquo;Afrique centrale de l&amp;rsquo;est, &amp;nbsp;mais aussi chez les Bashi, Banyarwanda, Baluba &amp;ndash; pour nous en tenir &amp;agrave; des r&amp;eacute;gions culturelles proches. Presque partout, l&amp;rsquo;intronisation du souverain (Mwami, Mulopwe, Mtema etc.), parfois d&amp;rsquo;un simple dignitaire appel&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; un pouvoir qui &amp;nbsp;relevait du &amp;laquo; sacr&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;, impliquait la transgression des interdits majeurs, en particulier la prohibition de l&amp;rsquo;inceste et de l&amp;rsquo;anthropophagie.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Ryangombe-Kiranga, un dieu r&amp;eacute;dempteur dont le culte kubandwa &amp;eacute;tait observ&amp;eacute; par de tr&amp;egrave;s nombreux peuples de l&amp;rsquo;Afrique centrale de l&amp;rsquo;est, exigeait de ses futurs Mandwa (adeptes), cette double &amp;nbsp;transgression. Les dignitaires de la secte &amp;ndash; ou de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;glise - qui incarnaient le dieu Ryangombe et ses suivants ou &amp;laquo; vassaux &amp;raquo; (Ibishego, Ibiyaga, etc.) qui se trouvaient investis d&amp;rsquo;un pouvoir thaumaturgique, passaient pour hermaphrodites : ils changeaient de sexe, tant&amp;ocirc;t &amp;agrave; volont&amp;eacute; (Burundi, Buha), tant&amp;ocirc;t d&amp;eacute;finitivement (cas des Ntazi du Bushi et des grands Bacwezi du Bunyamwezi). En r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute;, ils appartenaient &amp;agrave; un nouvel ordre (une sur-nature), comparable &amp;agrave; celui des morts et des esprits, o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;rsquo;opposition des &amp;laquo; genres &amp;raquo; &amp;eacute;tait abolie (Cf. Pol P. Gossiaux113, Le culte de Ryangombe-Kiranga, www.anthroposys.be ).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;L&amp;rsquo;on peut en dire autant des &amp;laquo; sorciers &amp;raquo;, &amp;laquo; gu&amp;eacute;risseurs &amp;raquo; et &amp;laquo; devins &amp;raquo; (barozi, baganga, bafumu), confondus/distingu&amp;eacute;s arbitrairement tant par les populations de l&amp;rsquo;endroit que par de &amp;nbsp;nombreux ethnologues. Tous devaient, &amp;agrave; des d&amp;eacute;gr&amp;eacute;s divers, pouvoir affirmer leur &amp;laquo; trans-naturalit&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; &amp;nbsp;en transgressant l&amp;rsquo;ordre des normes sexuelles admises par leur groupe.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chez les Babembe, les rituels initiatiques sexuels ont &amp;eacute;galement, on l&amp;rsquo;a vu, une fonction symbolique : ils visent &amp;agrave; assurer la fusion des deux magies oppos&amp;eacute;es de l&amp;rsquo;ordre f&amp;eacute;minin et masculin. Mais ils ont &amp;eacute;galement le sens d&amp;rsquo;une v&amp;eacute;ritable &amp;eacute;preuve. Le Mwam&amp;egrave; doit prouver qu&amp;rsquo;il ma&amp;icirc;trise parfaitement sa sexualit&amp;eacute;, qu&amp;rsquo;il peut assurer sa descendance en toute connaissance de cause &amp;ndash; sans qu&amp;rsquo;une s&amp;eacute;ductrice quelconque &amp;nbsp;puisse, par exemple, la lui &amp;laquo; voler &amp;raquo;. L&amp;rsquo;ensemble des Bahumbwa, durant l&amp;rsquo;initiation, se livrent, devant le nouveau candidat, aux sc&amp;egrave;nes les plus obsc&amp;egrave;nes qu&amp;rsquo;elles peuvent imaginer : elles exhibent, notamment, leurs organes sexuels avec la lubricit&amp;eacute; la plus intense. Le candidat doit demeurer totalement insensible &amp;agrave; ce spectacle (s&amp;rsquo;il &amp;eacute;choue, toute l&amp;rsquo;assembl&amp;eacute;e &amp;eacute;clate de rire puis, sous les hu&amp;eacute;es, chasse le candidat. Il pourra recommencer plus tard &amp;ndash; apr&amp;egrave;s paiements). Mais lorsqu&amp;rsquo;il approche la L&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;ngy&amp;rsquo;o (m&amp;ecirc;me si celle-ci est sa m&amp;egrave;re ou sa s&amp;oelig;ur &amp;ndash; ce qui est particuli&amp;egrave;rement traumatisant), il doit avoir une &amp;nbsp;relation &amp;nbsp;avec celle-ci. Cette double signification (symbolique et fonctionnelle) que peuvent rev&amp;ecirc;tir certains rituels initiatiques &amp;nbsp;se retrouve ailleurs et notamment chez les Banande, peuple riverain du Lac Edouard, originaire de l&amp;rsquo;Uganda mais dont certains clans seraient apparent&amp;eacute;s aux Lega Banyindu &amp;ndash; tr&amp;egrave;s proches des Babembe (Cf. la carte de l&amp;rsquo;Ill. 39). &amp;nbsp;Selon R. Debatty, assistant de territoire (Lubero) qui poursuivit pendant huit mois (1948-9) chez les Banande, l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tude du rituel d&amp;rsquo;intronisation du &amp;nbsp;Mwami Muhindo (chefferie Bamate), le candidat devait subir, pendant un an et demi, de nombreuses &amp;eacute;preuves (erisinga) qui, pour certaines, &amp;eacute;taient de nature sexuelle.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		74&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La premi&amp;egrave;re de ces &amp;eacute;preuves sexuelles (Ndiba : &amp;laquo; la fosse &amp;raquo;) &amp;nbsp;exigeait du futur Mwami qu&amp;rsquo;il demeur&amp;acirc;t pendant deux jours, en compagnie d&amp;rsquo;une femme nue (Musumbakali) dans une fosse de deux m&amp;egrave;tres de profondeur dont le fond &amp;eacute;tait tapiss&amp;eacute; de plantes naus&amp;eacute;abondes, urticantes et v&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;neuses. R. &amp;nbsp;Debatty affirme que l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;preuve consistait pour le futur Mwami, d&amp;rsquo;une part, &amp;agrave; ne pas succomber aux pestilences l&amp;eacute;tales de la fosse et, de l&amp;rsquo;autre, &amp;agrave; r&amp;eacute;sister &amp;agrave; la nudit&amp;eacute; de sa concubine. Etant donn&amp;eacute; le caract&amp;egrave;re naus&amp;eacute;eux de l&amp;rsquo;endroit, qui semble de nature &amp;agrave; calmer la plus v&amp;eacute;h&amp;eacute;mente des &amp;nbsp;satyriasis, l&amp;rsquo;on peut penser que l&amp;rsquo;un des aspects de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;preuve consistait &amp;eacute;galement, pour le Mwami, &amp;agrave; faire preuve de virilit&amp;eacute;, sans qu&amp;rsquo;un contact avec la Musumbakali soit, pour autant, n&amp;eacute;cessaire.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La deuxi&amp;egrave;me &amp;eacute;preuve (Kilao) voulait que le futur Mwami passe deux jours, couch&amp;eacute; sur une peau de l&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;laquo; dans la maison du Mwami [l&amp;rsquo;ancien ?] &amp;raquo;, entre les bras d&amp;rsquo;une jeune vierge et qu&amp;rsquo;il la d&amp;eacute;flore. Cette jeune fille, la &amp;laquo; Mombo &amp;raquo;, qui devait appartenir &amp;agrave; la lign&amp;eacute;e de la m&amp;egrave;re du candidat, &amp;eacute;tait en effet appel&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; lui donner un jour, l&amp;rsquo;enfant m&amp;acirc;le qui devait lui succ&amp;eacute;der. &amp;nbsp;Si la &amp;laquo; Mombo &amp;raquo; &amp;eacute;tait impub&amp;egrave;re, le Mwami ne pouvait la p&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;trer. Des t&amp;eacute;moins, choisis parmi les plus hauts dignitaires, venaient d&amp;ucirc;ment v&amp;eacute;rifier les signes de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;preuve et ses r&amp;eacute;sultats. En cas de r&amp;eacute;ussite, le t&amp;eacute;moin, Musingia, clamait en public : &amp;laquo; &amp;nbsp;Averimutobola : il l&amp;rsquo;a d&amp;eacute;flor&amp;eacute;e &amp;raquo;, ce que r&amp;eacute;p&amp;egrave;tait tout le village dans la joie des tambours114.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chez les Bahunde et les Bapere, le futur Mwami devait, en compagnie de la Mombo qui lui &amp;eacute;tait choisie, subir des &amp;eacute;preuves analogues115.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;La logique des actes initiatiques de nature sexuelle, chez les Babembe, ob&amp;eacute;it, par certains de ses aspects majeurs, &amp;agrave; celle qui dicte l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;preuve des rituels nande, hunde, pere : il s&amp;rsquo;agit pour le futur Mwami de prouver que, tout en ma&amp;icirc;trisant parfaitement sa sexualit&amp;eacute; et en sachant faire preuve de chastet&amp;eacute; (icibela) dans les circonstances les plus troublantes, il &amp;eacute;tait &amp;eacute;galement en mesure d&amp;rsquo;assurer sa descendance et qu&amp;rsquo;il est ainsi rev&amp;ecirc;tu du pouvoir mystique de garantir la f&amp;eacute;condit&amp;eacute; (et la sant&amp;eacute;) des &amp;ecirc;tres vivants et de la terre dont il sera bient&amp;ocirc;t le &amp;laquo; Roi &amp;raquo;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		75&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		POURQUOI ETRE LEOPARD ?&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		LES FUNERAILLES OU &amp;laquo; LE JOUR &amp;raquo; &amp;lsquo;AHIBI&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le processus de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose en l&amp;eacute;opard ob&amp;eacute;it, on l&amp;#39;aura not&amp;eacute;, &amp;agrave; une dialectique rigoureuse. Il est cependant une question qui demeure sans r&amp;eacute;ponse : pourquoi faut-il &amp;ecirc;tre l&amp;eacute;opard pour exercer pleinement le pouvoir de la justice, le contr&amp;ocirc;le de l&amp;#39;harmonie sociale ? Etre investi de pouvoirs magiques ? L&amp;#39;homme, tout comme le l&amp;eacute;opard, ne peut-il &amp;eacute;galement parcourir les douze compartiments logiques de l&amp;#39;univers ? La r&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;ponse ne semble gu&amp;egrave;re douteuse. Du reste, d&amp;#39;autres sorciers pr&amp;eacute;tendent, par un cheminement &amp;eacute;pist&amp;eacute;mologique diff&amp;eacute;rent de celui des Bam&amp;egrave;, pouvoir se transformer en oiseau, en &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant, en porc, en papillon ou ... en rien (invisible), avant de redevenir homme116.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;on pourrait donc imaginer (et au d&amp;eacute;but, ce fut mon hypoth&amp;egrave;se) que la fascination que pouvait exercer le grand fauve par sa beaut&amp;eacute;, son agilit&amp;eacute;, sa force117, ses ruses et sa cruaut&amp;eacute;, sur les Babembe permettait d&amp;#39;expliquer le d&amp;eacute;sir de s&amp;#39;emparer du pouvoir de celui-ci pour les cumuler &amp;agrave; celui de l&amp;#39;homme. Nous nous sommes vite aper&amp;ccedil;u que cette &amp;laquo; fascination &amp;raquo;, cette s&amp;eacute;duction, sans &amp;ecirc;tre r&amp;eacute;ellement absentes, &amp;eacute;taient fort temp&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es. Les Babembe connaissent de nombreux animaux qui sont soit plus &amp;laquo; intelligents &amp;raquo; (la genette), soit plus &amp;laquo; cruels &amp;raquo; (le p&amp;oelig;cilogale - ou putois - et la mangouste) que le l&amp;eacute;opard. Si le f&amp;eacute;lin est capable de transiter dans tous les territoires logiques du cosmos, les animaux qui entrent dans la titulature du Bwam&amp;egrave;, ma&amp;icirc;trisent, de mani&amp;egrave;re plus perfor&amp;shy;mante, les espaces sp&amp;eacute;cifiques, ceux entre lesquels ils voyagent, et que lui surveille de loin. C&amp;#39;est la raison pour laquelle, un Mwam&amp;egrave;, avant de devenir &amp;laquo; L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;, doit s&amp;#39;identifier &amp;agrave; chacun de ceux-ci, de mani&amp;egrave;re progressive.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour les Babembe, le l&amp;eacute;opard s&amp;#39;apparente plut&amp;ocirc;t &amp;agrave; un ph&amp;eacute;nom&amp;egrave;ne m&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;o&amp;shy;rologique (par exemple, la foudre et le tonnerre, accompagn&amp;eacute;s bient&amp;ocirc;t de pluie) qui demande, avant tout, &amp;agrave; &amp;ecirc;tre bien pens&amp;eacute;. La &amp;laquo; fascination &amp;raquo; n&amp;#39;est donc pas la raison profonde de leur volont&amp;eacute; de s&amp;#39;emparer de l&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute; du fauve. L&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude du rituel des fun&amp;eacute;railles de l&amp;#39;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard d&amp;eacute;montre m&amp;ecirc;me que le destin le plus tragique qui puisse frapper ce dernier est... de le demeurer &amp;eacute;ternellement. Avant d&amp;#39;interroger cette nouvelle &amp;eacute;nigme, il importe donc de d&amp;eacute;crire ce rituel.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Celui-ci connaissait de nombreuses variantes selon les clans - ou plut&amp;ocirc;t les r&amp;eacute;gions. Ainsi, dans les zones peu bois&amp;eacute;es du sud et de l&amp;#39;est de l&amp;#39;Ubembe, le traitement du corps avait lieu dans la case m&amp;ecirc;me du Mwam&amp;egrave;. Au nord et au centre, r&amp;eacute;gions de plateaux montagneux couverts de savanes arbustives et de for&amp;ecirc;ts de bambous, le traitement du cadavre se faisait dans la for&amp;ecirc;t, dans le myst&amp;egrave;re d&amp;#39;un enclos sp&amp;eacute;cial. Le choix de l&amp;#39;emplacement de la fosse fun&amp;eacute;raire pouvait &amp;eacute;galement varier (dans les montagnes, l&amp;rsquo;on pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rait les cavernes). Enfin, l&amp;#39;Administration belge ayant, peu apr&amp;egrave;s la premi&amp;egrave;re guerre mondiale, interdit le Bwam&amp;egrave;, le c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial ne put s&amp;#39;observer que dans le secret le plus strict : il s&amp;#39;en trouva sensiblement modifi&amp;eacute;. Nous d&amp;eacute;crirons le rituel qui nous est le plus familier - en indiquant les principales variantes, l&amp;agrave; o&amp;ugrave; elles nous semblent significatives.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		76&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;initiation au Bwam&amp;egrave; est ponctu&amp;eacute;e de tr&amp;egrave;s nombreuses &amp;eacute;preuves. Les unes ont pour objet de mesurer la &amp;laquo; force &amp;raquo;, b&amp;ugrave;basha, du candidat, la &amp;laquo; duret&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; de son c&amp;oelig;ur. La plus douloureuse exigeait un sacrifie humain 118 &amp;ndash; nous en reparlerons, dans un prochain article. Certaines &amp;eacute;preuves avaient un caract&amp;egrave;re sexuel. L&amp;#39;inceste n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait obligatoire que dans un seul cas : lorsqu&amp;#39;il y avait lieu de d&amp;eacute;signer une nouvelle tambourineuse, L&amp;ugrave;hombo (&amp;rsquo;Asah&amp;ugrave;). Il pouvait &amp;eacute;galement se trouver, on l&amp;rsquo;a dit, que la L&amp;ugrave;bungy&amp;rsquo;o avec laquelle le candidat devait avoir des relations sexuelles f&amp;ucirc;t sa m&amp;egrave;re, sa s&amp;oelig;ur ou sa grand-m&amp;egrave;re. M&amp;ecirc;me si le fait n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait pas per&amp;ccedil;u comme une transgres&amp;shy;sion du m&amp;rsquo;cilo (prohibition) de l&amp;#39;inceste, il n&amp;#39;en &amp;eacute;tait pas moins fort traumatisant pour le candidat. D&amp;#39;autres &amp;eacute;preuves avaient pour fonction de v&amp;eacute;rifier que la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait r&amp;eacute;ellement produite : on exigeait du candidat qu&amp;#39;il r&amp;eacute;alise, publiquement (hors de l&amp;#39;enclos initiatique), un ensemble de performances chor&amp;eacute;graphiques, mimant notamment le comportement, les strat&amp;eacute;gies de chasse, les techniques de mise &amp;agrave; mort de l&amp;#39;animal dont il avait conquis l&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;ti (titre/grade). Ces danses &amp;eacute;taient essentielles : elles permettaient &amp;agrave; tous de mesurer l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tendue de l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; du Mwam&amp;egrave;. Mais l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;preuve que le candidat-l&amp;eacute;opard attendait sans doute avec le plus d&amp;#39;appr&amp;eacute;hension &amp;eacute;tait celle qu&amp;#39;il aurait &amp;agrave; accomplir apr&amp;egrave;s que sa propre m&amp;egrave;re soit venue lui en donner l&amp;#39;ordre : &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; .&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Eeeh m&amp;rsquo;kubwa &amp;ugrave;s&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;#39;uca na l&amp;ugrave;bwe lwa m&amp;rsquo;t&amp;ugrave;mb&amp;egrave; na cake nondo !&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Eeeh grand, viens avec la grosse pierre du forgeron&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		et avec son marteau !&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Cette formule sibylline, le Mwam&amp;egrave; en conna&amp;icirc;t le sens depuis longtemps. Il sait en effet qu&amp;#39;il lui incombera un jour de tuer son propre p&amp;egrave;re119, en lui &amp;eacute;crasant la poitrine avec l&amp;#39;enclume (autrefois en pierre) du forgeron et en l&amp;#39;achevant, au besoin, &amp;agrave; coups de marteau. L&amp;#39;on attendait g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement que le p&amp;egrave;re f&amp;ucirc;t &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;agonie pour introniser son fils au stade final de l&amp;#39;initiation120. L&amp;#39;on &amp;eacute;tait persuad&amp;eacute; chez les Babembe qu&amp;#39;il &amp;eacute;tait absolument impossible pour un Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard de mourir121. Que de vieux &amp;laquo; L&amp;eacute;opards &amp;raquo; m&amp;#39;ont affirm&amp;eacute;, avec la tranquillit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;vidence, qu&amp;#39;ils &amp;eacute;taient immortels. Parfois m&amp;ecirc;me avec r&amp;eacute;signa&amp;shy;tion. En effet, rien ne peut emp&amp;ecirc;cher le L&amp;eacute;opard de vieillir. L&amp;#39;on pense donc qu&amp;#39;il arrive un moment, dans le cycle de son &amp;laquo; immortalit&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;, o&amp;ugrave; il entre dans une phase d&amp;#39;agonie &amp;eacute;ternelle. Il meurt donc une premi&amp;egrave;re fois. Puis revient au jour. Et cela, sans fin. Toutefois, son corps ne cesse de se d&amp;eacute;grader, de conna&amp;icirc;tre une d&amp;eacute;ch&amp;eacute;ance croissante, une d&amp;eacute;cr&amp;eacute;pitude de plus en plus avilissante. C&amp;#39;est donc lorsqu&amp;#39;il est jug&amp;eacute; d&amp;eacute;sesp&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;ment s&amp;eacute;nile de corps qu&amp;#39;il doit &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;laquo; aid&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo; par son fils &amp;agrave; mourir.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		77&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;on ne comprendrait m&amp;ecirc;me pas que ce dernier se refuse &amp;agrave; un devoir aussi imp&amp;eacute;rieux122. Le contraire e&amp;ucirc;t &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; per&amp;ccedil;u comme un v&amp;eacute;ritable blasph&amp;egrave;me. D&amp;rsquo;autant plus grave qu&amp;#39;en refusant la gr&amp;acirc;ce de la mort &amp;agrave; son p&amp;egrave;re, le fils ne pouvait attirer que la honte sur toute sa famille - voire son lignage - et la r&amp;eacute;duire au pire avilissement - le &amp;laquo; Roi &amp;raquo; n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tant plus capable, physiquement, d&amp;#39;exercer ses fonctions. S&amp;#39;il ne s&amp;#39;accomplissait pas sans une certaine nostalgie, ce devoir &amp;eacute;tait imprescriptible.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La mise &amp;agrave; mort se fait en pr&amp;eacute;sence de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pouse la plus &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;e en titre du Mwam&amp;egrave; agonisant - donc de la m&amp;egrave;re de celui &amp;agrave; qui en incombe le devoir.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La mort du &amp;laquo; Roi &amp;raquo; est alors annonc&amp;eacute;e par les tambours du village qu&amp;#39;accompagnent bient&amp;ocirc;t ceux des autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes Celle d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga les escorte de ses tambours de guerre et d&amp;#39;angoisse. Tous les Bam&amp;egrave; des villages voisins, avertis ainsi que &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; Le &amp;raquo; Jour, &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;bi - celui du &amp;laquo; d&amp;eacute;part &amp;raquo; du Mwam&amp;egrave; &amp;ndash; est arriv&amp;eacute;, se disposent &amp;agrave; se rendre au village du d&amp;eacute;funt. Le fils demeure seul1213avec le cadavre de son p&amp;egrave;re. Il allume un feu, &amp;#39;aya. Une double claie de bambous, kahala, avait d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; construite dans l&amp;#39;enclos fun&amp;eacute;raire. Sur l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tage sup&amp;eacute;rieur, le fils d&amp;eacute;pose le cadavre d&amp;eacute;nud&amp;eacute;. Il le rase enti&amp;egrave;rement et lui coupe le bout de la verge124. Il attache un bandeau de fibres de raphia, d&amp;eacute;cor&amp;eacute; de cauris (Cyprea moneta), autour du front de son p&amp;egrave;re. Des bandeaux de m&amp;ecirc;me nature (ou perl&amp;eacute;s) sont fix&amp;eacute;s au cou, ainsi qu&amp;#39;aux endroits du corps o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;on avait ins&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute; les substances ayant servi &amp;agrave; la magie de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose. Celles-ci doivent dispara&amp;icirc;tre avec le corps. Sous la nuque du mort, il dispose une b&amp;ucirc;che, pr&amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;e sur un arbre foudroy&amp;eacute; ou - plus rarement - une statuette travaill&amp;eacute;e dans le m&amp;ecirc;me bois125 : elle est destin&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; recueillir l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; ombre &amp;raquo; (&amp;rsquo;ecule, &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;cucumbe) du mort. Certains des insignes &amp;laquo; royaux &amp;raquo; du Mwam&amp;egrave; sont soit fix&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; ses avant-bras, soit d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute;s sur le sol : l&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo (serpe-sabre) &amp;agrave; gauche, le couteau c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;moniel, mwele, &amp;agrave; droite. D&amp;#39;autres bi&amp;rsquo;o&amp;rsquo;o (cr&amp;acirc;nes des anc&amp;ecirc;tres, de l&amp;eacute;opards, de gorilles, statuettes, etc...) peuvent &amp;eacute;galement &amp;ecirc;tre pos&amp;eacute;s sur le sol, autour de la partie sup&amp;eacute;rieure de la claie. &amp;Agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tage inf&amp;eacute;rieur de celle-ci, le pr&amp;eacute;parateur dispose un ensemble de calebasses ou de courges. Il est essentiel que celles-ci soient neuves, qu&amp;#39;elles n&amp;#39;aient jamais &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; utilis&amp;eacute;es. Elles sont destin&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; recueillir les d&amp;eacute;bris du corps, lorsque celui-ci entrera en d&amp;eacute;composition, et surtout les vers, banyangulube, byolo (gen.), en particulier les &amp;laquo; vers rouges &amp;raquo;, mi&amp;rsquo;uso, mi&amp;rsquo;hibi126. De ces vers rena&amp;icirc;tront en effet une nymphe qui, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir subi diverses formes de m&amp;eacute;tamorphoses (elle se transforme notamment en python, &amp;rsquo;abwalo), finit par rena&amp;icirc;tre en l&amp;eacute;opard. L&amp;eacute;opard &amp;laquo; magique &amp;raquo; qui pourra lui-m&amp;ecirc;me changer &amp;agrave; son gr&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;apparence et prendre celle que redoutent le plus les Babembe : le crapaud, il&amp;ugrave;ky&amp;ugrave;lul&amp;ugrave;sh&amp;egrave;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		78&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e que les vers ou les helminthes qui sortent d&amp;#39;un cadavre peuvent se m&amp;eacute;tamorphoser et donner au mort une nouvelle apparence est r&amp;eacute;pandue dans toute la r&amp;eacute;gion des Grands Lacs, en particulier chez les peuples qui vivent aux fronti&amp;egrave;res imm&amp;eacute;diates de l&amp;#39;Ubembe.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Le P&amp;egrave;re Van der Burgt, qui, d&amp;egrave;s 1896, avait entrepris une enqu&amp;ecirc;te sur les Bamoso (au sud de l&amp;#39;actuel Burundi) et les Baha (Tanzanie) - deux sous-groupes rundi dont l&amp;#39;aire g&amp;eacute;ographique se situe sur la rive est du Tanganyika, juste en face de l&amp;#39;Ubembe -, fut intrigu&amp;eacute; par ces croyances sur lesquelles il apporte des d&amp;eacute;tails dans sa monographie Sur l&amp;rsquo;Urundi et les Warundi (1903) :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Les Warundi, si bien que les autres n&amp;egrave;gres - &amp;eacute;crit-il - admettent l&amp;#39;immortalit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me. L&amp;#39;homme, l&amp;#39;individu ne p&amp;eacute;rit pas, mais survit : l&amp;#39;enveloppe mat&amp;eacute;rielle de cet &amp;ecirc;tre survivant, c&amp;#39;est le ver cadav&amp;eacute;rique. C&amp;#39;est le cas pour un simple Murundi. Car l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me d&amp;#39;un roi, passant d&amp;#39;abord &amp;eacute;galement par un de ces vers, se transforme ensuite en isato (le serpent python). Le ver est au d&amp;eacute;but soigneuse&amp;shy;ment nourri avec du lait. Elle (l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me p&amp;eacute;nate) se montre encore sous forme de lion, l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me d&amp;#39;un prince, d&amp;#39;une princesse, sous forme de l&amp;eacute;opard.127&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ces observations furent confirm&amp;eacute;es peu apr&amp;egrave;s par Mgr. Gorju et le P&amp;egrave;re Zuure (1929 et 1949)128. Le P&amp;egrave;re Colle (1937) devait bient&amp;ocirc;t recueillir des croyances analogues chez les Bashi, les voisins imm&amp;eacute;diats129 du nord de l&amp;#39;Ubembe :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Quand le mort - &amp;eacute;crit le P&amp;egrave;re Colle - est un grand muluzi [noble, prince}, &amp;agrave; son dernier soupir, les favoris qui l&amp;#39;ont assist&amp;eacute; vont appeler un ou deux hommes du clan Banjoka [&amp;laquo; serpents &amp;raquo;}. Ils le mettent &amp;agrave; nu (d&amp;#39;autres disent qu&amp;#39;il est habill&amp;eacute; de ses meilleurs habits) dans un cercueil (mukenzi) qui est d&amp;#39;abord une barque, puis apr&amp;egrave;s trois jours, une peau de vache (mugurha). On attend que le cadavre entre en d&amp;eacute;composition, de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; en ramasser un ver cadav&amp;eacute;rique (de pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;endroit du c&amp;oelig;ur)... Quand le ver appara&amp;icirc;t, les Banjoka avertissent les femmes du d&amp;eacute;funt et tout le pays de la mort du chef. Mais tous l&amp;#39;ont d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; devin&amp;eacute;. Cela arrive apr&amp;egrave;s 6, 8 ou 10 jours... Le ver se changera en chien noir, ensuite en l&amp;eacute;opard qu&amp;#39;on ne pourrait tuer.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour les Bagore (les femmes des grands chefs)... on pense que son (sic) ver cadav&amp;eacute;rique se change aussi en serpent. Le muzimu&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		[&amp;laquo; esprit &amp;raquo;] &amp;nbsp;entre dans un serpent rouge&amp;acirc;tre et gros, igu. Chez les Bafulero, la wamikazi &amp;nbsp;[&amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;pouse du Mwami &amp;raquo;} entre dans un boa, nyamisharha130.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Peu apr&amp;egrave;s le P. Colle, l&amp;#39;administrateur territorial &amp;nbsp;Corbisier livrait un r&amp;eacute;cit convergent de la mort des Bami shi, en donnant quelques d&amp;eacute;tails compl&amp;eacute;mentaires : le ver, mukashano [&amp;laquo; l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;raquo;}, qui sortait du cercueil royal &amp;eacute;tait :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		79&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un gros ver blanc sorti du ventre du d&amp;eacute;funt. La coutume - ajoute Corbisier - dit que ce ver ne peut sortir que du cadavre des rois, lequel ne donne qu&amp;#39;un seul ver, mais de beaucoup plus grosses dimensions que les vers d&amp;#39;autres cadavres.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Le ver, mukashano, est alors d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute; dans un pot (en bois) &amp;agrave; lait et nourri avec du miel. Le mukashano se transforme bient&amp;ocirc;t en jeune l&amp;eacute;opard, mais sans vie. On met celui-ci dans un nouveau pot de miel... Bient&amp;ocirc;t le vrai l&amp;eacute;opard prend vie...131&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ce l&amp;eacute;opard, ultime r&amp;eacute;incarnation du Mwami, ne fait apparemment l&amp;#39;objet d&amp;#39;aucun soin. On le jette en brousse (Corbisier) ; on le repousse &amp;agrave; grands coups de battements de tambour (Colle).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les m&amp;ecirc;mes croyances ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;es au Rwanda, notamment par les P&amp;egrave;res Auroux, Classe, Pages et de Lacger :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; On raconte au Ruanda - &amp;eacute;crit ce dernier - que les appariteurs charg&amp;eacute;s de veiller la d&amp;eacute;pouille royale &amp;eacute;pient la sortie du premier ver en sa main droite. Ils le recueillent religieusement, l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;vent telle une larve, dans du lait toujours frais... La b&amp;ecirc;te grossit : il faut la changer de baignoire et finalement la transf&amp;eacute;rer dans un baquet &amp;agrave; brasser la bi&amp;egrave;re - umuvure. Enfin le petit l&amp;eacute;opard, r&amp;eacute;incar&amp;shy;nation du mwami appara&amp;icirc;t. On le laisse grandir en libert&amp;eacute; jusqu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; ce que adulte, devenu m&amp;eacute;chant &amp;ndash; irakaliha132, ayant mis en d&amp;eacute;route plusieurs gardiens, on lui donne la cl&amp;eacute; de la brousse. Il meurt, tu&amp;eacute; peut-&amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;#39;aventure133.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Des croyances semblables &amp;eacute;taient partag&amp;eacute;es par les Bahavu, les Bahunde, Banande et, d&amp;rsquo;une mani&amp;egrave;re plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale, tous les peuples de la zone interlacustre, depuis le Buganda jusqu&amp;rsquo;au Buha, qui connaissent l&amp;rsquo;institution du Bwami.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Chez les Bahavu &amp;ndash; et nous nous en tiendrons &amp;agrave; ce dernier exemple -, la cadavre du Mwami, d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute; dans une pirogue, &amp;eacute;tait transport&amp;eacute; dans l&amp;rsquo;Ile Cofu, sur le lac Kivu (pr&amp;egrave;s de Kalehe). On attendait alors anxieusement, pendant plusieurs semaines, que le &amp;nbsp;ves, le Cibwana (&amp;laquo; le petit enfant &amp;raquo;) sorte de la bouche du mort. Il &amp;eacute;tait &amp;nbsp;alors recueilli par un &amp;laquo; beru &amp;raquo; (haut initi&amp;eacute;) sur une feuille de cikowa151 enduite de lait et d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute; dans la brousse.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; D&amp;egrave;s qu&amp;rsquo;il a touch&amp;eacute; terre &amp;ndash; &amp;eacute;crit, en 1927, l&amp;rsquo;A.T. Verdonck - le Beru doit s&amp;rsquo;enfuir &amp;agrave; toutes jambes. Ce ver dit-on se transformera, deviendra, l&amp;eacute;opard (&amp;eacute;simba) qui chaque jour, au cr&amp;eacute;pusculte, r&amp;ocirc;dera, portant le &amp;laquo; mzimu &amp;raquo; (esprit) du d&amp;eacute;funt134.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Verdonck ajoute qu&amp;rsquo;un second ver issu du cadavre royal, est appel&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; se transformer en serval (mondo).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		80&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe44.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 998px; height: 1690px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		ILL. 39. D&amp;eacute;tail de la Carte ethnographique illustrant A. Moeller, Les grandes lignes des migrations des Bantous de la Province Orientale du Congo Belge, Bxl., M. Hayez, 1936. Localisation des aires principales, des Banande (nord) au Babembe, o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;rsquo;on croit &amp;agrave; la transformation du &amp;laquo; roi &amp;raquo; en ver, puis en l&amp;eacute;opard (ou lion) &amp;ndash; avec, souvent, une phase transitoire en python. (Les fronti&amp;egrave;res &amp;laquo; ethniques &amp;raquo; sont quelque peu approximatives). (Clich&amp;eacute; P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		81&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Lorsque Van der Burgt, Auroux ou Colle r&amp;eacute;coltaient ces croyances, il &amp;eacute;tait visible qu&amp;#39;elles se trouvaient d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; rel&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;es, pour les Barundi, les Baha, les Banyarwanda et d&amp;rsquo;autres, au rang des fables populaires ; au mieux, de ces mythes auxquels de pieux prestidigitateurs135 cherchent &amp;agrave; donner une caution visible.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ce n&amp;#39;est certainement pas le cas chez les Babembe o&amp;ugrave; le gardien du mort passe parfois plusieurs semaines136 &amp;agrave; attendre la chute des premiers mi&amp;rsquo;ibi, vers, dans les calebasses dispos&amp;eacute;es sous le corps. Pendant ce temps, assis par terre &amp;agrave; c&amp;ocirc;t&amp;eacute; du cadavre, &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;tomba, le fils veille sur ce dernier. Il se rem&amp;eacute;more les hauts faits de son p&amp;egrave;re. Mentalement, ou &amp;agrave; haute voix, il rend hommage &amp;agrave; sa justice, sa force, au soin qu&amp;#39;il avait de &amp;laquo; rendre aux anc&amp;ecirc;tres ce que ceux-ci lui avaient donn&amp;eacute; &amp;raquo;. Il promet aux morts d&amp;#39;en &amp;ecirc;tre le digne repr&amp;eacute;sentant. De perp&amp;eacute;tuer ainsi la tradition du Bwam&amp;egrave;. Des chants de tristesse, d&amp;#39;une &amp;eacute;trange m&amp;eacute;lancolie pour certains137 s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;vent de la case fun&amp;eacute;raire.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;#39;un d&amp;#39;eux, quelque peu r&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute;, revient avec r&amp;eacute;currence :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		M&amp;rsquo;mwitu eee&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dans la for&amp;ecirc;t eee&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		M&amp;rsquo;mwitu wakele pinji138&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dans la for&amp;ecirc;t tu es parti, chevreau&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		M&amp;rsquo;mwitu wakele a&amp;rsquo;ombo&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dans la for&amp;ecirc;t tu es parti, petite coiffe&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Wasala &amp;nbsp;minyombo&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tu es venu avec tes atours&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Wakele tata&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tu es parti, papa&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		M&amp;rsquo;mwitu wakele tata wasala minyombo&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dans la for&amp;ecirc;t, tu es parti papa, tu es venu avec tes atours&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Mwitu wakele &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;bi (ou mi&amp;rsquo;ibi)139&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		[De] chez nous, tu es venu [c&amp;#39;est] Le Jour&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		(ou &amp;laquo; c&amp;#39;est l&amp;#39;heure des vers &amp;raquo;)&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		wasala eee &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;bi&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tu es venu car c&amp;#39;est le jour&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Nasala ane nondo na ngabo&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Moi je viens avec mon marteau et mon bouclier140&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ine nasala ane minyombo&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Moi je viens avec mes atours&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tata naela b&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;ongo tata wambila&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Papa je pleure, solitude. Papa tu es parti.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;rsquo;Ulangesha mwik&amp;ugrave;lu &amp;lsquo;&amp;egrave;kongo henjo na ma&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;bi.Naake.Naake.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Rien n&amp;#39;appara&amp;icirc;t dans le ciel, sinon l&amp;#39;aigle et les rapaces.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Rien, rien.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;82&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		De temps en temps, le gardien fait passer sur le corps du Mwam&amp;egrave; mort, une corne de ch&amp;egrave;vre, enduite d&amp;#39;huile de ricin, ma&amp;rsquo;akya, bourr&amp;eacute;e de plantes destin&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; chasser au loin les mauvais esprits et &amp;agrave; apaiser l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me du mort (elle est donc toujours pr&amp;eacute;sente)141.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les mi&amp;rsquo;ibi, vers, se manifestent enfin. Le gardien du corps s&amp;#39;empare alors de son lourd sabre-serpe, &amp;rsquo;a&amp;rsquo;elo, et d&amp;#39;un coup sec, tranche la t&amp;ecirc;te, m&amp;rsquo;cwe, de son p&amp;egrave;re.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Il appelle sa premi&amp;egrave;re &amp;eacute;pouse et lui r&amp;eacute;clame le sang, &amp;lsquo;alumbu, des r&amp;egrave;gles d&amp;#39;une femme. Le sang f&amp;eacute;minin est, pour les Babembe comme pour tant d&amp;#39;autres peuples, une substance magique qui poss&amp;egrave;de des pouvoirs &amp;eacute;minents. Comme toute magie, elle est wab&amp;ugrave;tee - elle peut tuer -, mais elle est &amp;eacute;galement &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;b&amp;ugrave;a : b&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;fique. Le sang r&amp;eacute;clam&amp;eacute; doit id&amp;eacute;alement provenir de la tambourineuse, L&amp;ugrave;kombo (&amp;rsquo;Asah&amp;ugrave;). &amp;Agrave; d&amp;eacute;faut, il pourra &amp;ecirc;tre requis de l&amp;#39;une des filles de l&amp;#39;officiant ou de celles de ses fr&amp;egrave;res consanguins142. Le sang sera frott&amp;eacute; sur le cadavre (sauf la t&amp;ecirc;te) : il prive le l&amp;eacute;opard, toujours associ&amp;eacute; au corps du mort, de toute force143. Le corps, envelopp&amp;eacute; de nattes, est ensuite emport&amp;eacute; par les fils et les fr&amp;egrave;res, au loin dans la for&amp;ecirc;t et projet&amp;eacute; dans un marais, mabenga, &amp;agrave; proximit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;une rivi&amp;egrave;re, o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;on attendra qu&amp;#39;il y soit immerg&amp;eacute;. Un gardien, m&amp;rsquo;lenda, veillera sur les lieux pendant sept jours144. Le fils recueille les vers qui sont tomb&amp;eacute;s dans toutes les calebasses et les r&amp;eacute;unit dans celle qu&amp;#39;il avait d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute;e sous le cr&amp;acirc;ne, l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;ongo, du d&amp;eacute;funt. Sauf cette derni&amp;egrave;re, toutes sont br&amp;ucirc;l&amp;eacute;es, avec leur contenu. &amp;Agrave; proximit&amp;eacute; du cr&amp;acirc;ne - d&amp;eacute;sormais priv&amp;eacute; de corps -, l&amp;#39;officiant allume un nouveau feu, tr&amp;egrave;s puissant, de mani&amp;egrave;re &amp;agrave; dess&amp;eacute;cher compl&amp;egrave;tement la t&amp;ecirc;te et &amp;agrave; en faire sortir les derniers mi&amp;rsquo;ibi145. Le cr&amp;acirc;ne est ensuite soigneusement nettoy&amp;eacute;. La cavit&amp;eacute; c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;brale est remplie des m&amp;ecirc;mes plantes dont &amp;eacute;tait bourr&amp;eacute;e la corne de ch&amp;egrave;vre. Le cr&amp;acirc;ne est d&amp;eacute;cor&amp;eacute;, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;aide d&amp;#39;un petit couteau, de points-cercles, nga&amp;rsquo;ata y&amp;rsquo;al&amp;ugrave;ngi. La t&amp;ecirc;te est ensuite frott&amp;eacute;e de terre blanche.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La comparaison, esquiss&amp;eacute;e plus haut, avec les rituels shi et rwanda o&amp;ugrave; le ver, l&amp;#39;helminthe, &amp;eacute;tait l&amp;#39;objet de soins pr&amp;eacute;cieux, nous autorise &amp;agrave; attendre de l&amp;#39;officiant m&amp;rsquo;bembe qu&amp;#39;il prenne avec les mi&amp;rsquo;ibi issus du corps de son p&amp;egrave;re dont ils incarnent l&amp;rsquo;&amp;laquo; &amp;acirc;me &amp;raquo;, m&amp;rsquo;t&amp;egrave;ma, autant de pr&amp;eacute;cautions pieuses.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		83&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Il n&amp;#39;en est rien. Prenant la calebasse qui contient les vers, le Mwam&amp;egrave; y verse de l&amp;#39;huile de ricin - r&amp;eacute;put&amp;eacute;e sorci&amp;egrave;re146 - et saupoudre abondamment l&amp;#39;ensemble d&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;matite rouge, m&amp;rsquo;muse, qui passe pour tout aussi l&amp;eacute;tale. &amp;Agrave; l&amp;#39;aide d&amp;#39;un pilon d&amp;#39;os, le Mwam&amp;egrave; m&amp;eacute;lange l&amp;#39;ensemble en prenant soin de broyer jusqu&amp;#39;au moindre ver issu du cadavre. Le cr&amp;acirc;ne, l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;ongo, est alors recouvert de cet enduit, l&amp;ugrave;b&amp;ugrave;ng&amp;ugrave;. L&amp;#39;officiant chante :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Aaaaawa nha lwa &amp;lsquo;b&amp;ugrave;ng&amp;ugrave; eee&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Aaaaa je te donne les biens de l&amp;#39;enduit eee&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Lwa &amp;lsquo;b&amp;ugrave;ng&amp;ugrave; eee l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave; uuuu &amp;ugrave;ti mwambo eee&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; De l&amp;#39;enduit eee de la mort oooo avec cette huile eee147&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;Agrave; ce moment, plus jamais celui-ci ne pourra donner corps &amp;agrave; un l&amp;eacute;opard. Il est redevenu d&amp;eacute;finitivement cr&amp;acirc;ne d&amp;#39;un homme, m&amp;rsquo;tu. Il est ensuite garni de bandelettes de cauris - signes de paix, d&amp;#39;harmonie et de bonheur.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe45.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 285px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 40-41. Divers aspects d&amp;rsquo;un cr&amp;acirc;ne L&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;ongo d&amp;rsquo;Homme-l&amp;eacute;opard Mwam&amp;egrave; wa&amp;rsquo; &amp;egrave;ngwe trait&amp;eacute; rituellement. D&amp;eacute;coration de points cercl&amp;eacute;s. Frises de cauris sembe. Pigments. (Photos&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe46.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 285px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		84&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Le cr&amp;acirc;ne est alors sorti religieusement par le nouveau Mwam&amp;egrave;. Tous les Bam&amp;egrave; des r&amp;eacute;gions voisines sont assembl&amp;eacute;s devant la case, ainsi que les membres du village148. Des danses diverses, qu&amp;#39;il serait trop long de d&amp;eacute;crire, rendent un dernier hommage au &amp;laquo; Roi &amp;raquo; mort. &amp;nbsp;Le cr&amp;acirc;ne est ensuite expos&amp;eacute; dans une petite niche de roseaux et de feuilles, qui n&amp;#39;en laisse appara&amp;icirc;tre que la face. (Cette niche avait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; fabriqu&amp;eacute;e par les fils du &amp;nbsp;Mwam&amp;egrave;.) Pendant plusieurs jours, des pri&amp;egrave;res et des offrandes lui seront faites. A cette occasion, les masques des Bagabo, celui d&amp;lsquo;Alunga durant le jour, celui d&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;Elanda, la nuit, sont pr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute;s une derni&amp;egrave;re fois au cr&amp;acirc;ne du Mwam&amp;egrave; mort. Le fils qui le recueille conservera celui-ci dans un reliquaire d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;corce de ficus, avec les autres cr&amp;acirc;nes de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres149.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe47.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 287px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 42. Mani&amp;egrave;re rituelle de pr&amp;eacute;senter, afin de l&amp;rsquo;honorer, le cr&amp;acirc;ne L&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;ongo d&amp;rsquo;un Mwam&amp;egrave; &amp;agrave; un h&amp;ocirc;te de marque. Itombwe. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux, &amp;nbsp;1974).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		85&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe48.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 317px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 43. Autre exemplaire d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Ecwab&amp;ugrave;ka y&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga. Bois de Cordia millenii. Baker. (Pour un commentaire, Cf. ILL. 4). Ht. 425 mm. (Sans les parures). Il appara&amp;icirc;t, notamment, pour rendre hommage au Mwam&amp;egrave; mort. Sculpture de Selemani M&amp;rsquo;t&amp;egrave;ma wa Basolo&amp;rsquo;ece (derni&amp;egrave;re d&amp;eacute;cennie du XIXe s.). Collection priv&amp;eacute;e. (Photo&amp;copy; de P. P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le Mwam&amp;egrave; les sortira de leurs pr&amp;eacute;cieuses pyxides &amp;agrave; plusieurs occasions, et notamment lorsque, pris de nostalgie, il &amp;eacute;prouvera le besoin de prier, &amp;ugrave;ela, sur eux. Il chante alors avec m&amp;eacute;lancolie :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Namona m&amp;rsquo;mwik&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;kongo ooo &amp;lsquo;&amp;egrave;bala tata aa namona aaa&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Je ne vois rien dans le ciel. Je vois la tristesse, p&amp;egrave;re.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Nabakanaaa na mah&amp;ugrave;lu wa bukanga wa l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave; lwa ma&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;bi&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Je suis triste dans l&amp;#39;ombre du venin des rapaces de la mort.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		*&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ainsi, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; obs&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;, tout au long de son existence, par la volont&amp;eacute; de s&amp;#39;identifier au l&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;rsquo;engwe, apr&amp;egrave;s s&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre m&amp;eacute;tamorphos&amp;eacute; en lui, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir v&amp;eacute;cu sous son apparence aux yeux de ses &amp;laquo; sujets &amp;raquo;, le Mwam&amp;egrave; n&amp;#39;a qu&amp;#39;une seule hantise, une seule angoisse : ne pas pouvoir b&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ficier du rituel &amp;lsquo;a&amp;rsquo;ibi, Le Jour, que nous venons de d&amp;eacute;crire. Ce qui le condamnerait &amp;agrave; ne jamais vivre en homme et &amp;agrave; &amp;laquo; revenir &amp;raquo; sur terre en l&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;rsquo;engwe, cette fois pour l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;ternit&amp;eacute; [?]150.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tout se passe comme si les Bam&amp;egrave; avaient accept&amp;eacute; de sacrifier leur vie de m&amp;rsquo;t&amp;ugrave;, homme, au l&amp;eacute;opard pour m&amp;eacute;riter un jour d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre hommes. Cette conclusion me semblait d&amp;#39;autant plus troublante que rien, dans l&amp;#39;eschatologie bembe, ne garantit la r&amp;eacute;incarnation des morts. L&amp;#39;on en admet, il est vrai, la possibilit&amp;eacute;. Mais contrairement &amp;agrave; ce qu&amp;#39;affirment certains ethnographes, pour la plupart mission&amp;shy;naires, qui ont &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute; les peuples voisins, en particulier les Baluba, o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;on croit &amp;ndash; affirme-t-on151 - que les &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; bons &amp;raquo; morts sont promis &amp;agrave; une heureuse m&amp;eacute;tempsychose, les Babembe pensent qu&amp;#39;un &amp;laquo; bon &amp;raquo; mort est celui qui le demeure et observe le destin que lui assignent comme ultime espace la for&amp;ecirc;t, mwitu, et/ou les marais, mabenga, glac&amp;eacute;s d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga. Ainsi, si l&amp;#39;on redoute d&amp;#39;un grand-p&amp;egrave;re, par exemple, qu&amp;#39;il cherche &amp;agrave; se r&amp;eacute;incarner dans l&amp;#39;un de ses petits-fils, l&amp;#39;on fera tout pour l&amp;#39;en emp&amp;ecirc;cher. Les statuettes o&amp;ugrave; sont recueillies les &amp;laquo; ombres &amp;raquo; des morts ont pour fonction - rappelons-le - de d&amp;eacute;courager ceux-ci de vouloir s&amp;#39;emparer d&amp;#39;un &amp;ecirc;tre vivant. Et lorsque l&amp;#39;on pense qu&amp;#39;un enfant est effectivement &amp;laquo; pris &amp;raquo; par l&amp;#39;un de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres, on le redoute, on l&amp;#39;exorcise &amp;ndash; et, s&amp;rsquo;il pr&amp;eacute;sente des signes somatiques &amp;eacute;tranges, on le met &amp;agrave; mort. Car l&amp;rsquo;on pense alors qu&amp;rsquo;il est &amp;laquo; reve-nu &amp;raquo; &amp;nbsp;pour tuer sa &amp;laquo; m&amp;egrave;re &amp;raquo; (qui est, en fait sa fille ou sa &amp;nbsp;belle-fille).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Fallait-il admettre, en songeant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;exemple des rois shi, rwanda et rundi, qu&amp;#39;une croyance - r&amp;eacute;pandue dans toute la r&amp;eacute;gion des Grands Lacs - frappait les hommes investis de quelque pouvoir, d&amp;#39;une sorte de mal&amp;eacute;diction qu&amp;#39;ils ne pouvaient racheter qu&amp;#39;au prix du sacrifice de leur humanit&amp;eacute; ?&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Mais alors pourquoi les Bashi, les Banyarwanda et les Barundi pensaient-ils que leurs rois pouvaient accomplir ce sacrifice apr&amp;egrave;s leur mort - tandis que les Babembe y consacraient leur vie enti&amp;egrave;re - sans espoir r&amp;eacute;el de transcen&amp;shy;dance ? Pourquoi, de surcro&amp;icirc;t, &amp;eacute;tait-ce au l&amp;eacute;opard qu&amp;#39;il fallait ainsi &amp;laquo;rendre sa part &amp;raquo;152? En fin de compte, si le pouvoir semblait sacril&amp;egrave;ge, n&amp;#39;est-ce pas qu&amp;#39;obscur&amp;eacute;ment, l&amp;#39;on croyait qu&amp;#39;il r&amp;eacute;sultait d&amp;#39;une usurpation et que la victime de ce rapt blasph&amp;eacute;matoire n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait autre que le l&amp;eacute;opard ?&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		87&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		LE PECHE ORIGINEL&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		OU LE CYCLE DE LA QUEUE&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		En cherchant &amp;agrave; retrouver la th&amp;eacute;orie des contes et des fragments de mythes relatifs au l&amp;eacute;opard que m&amp;#39;avaient confi&amp;eacute; les Bam&amp;egrave; et les hauts dignitaires des dieux &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, &amp;rsquo;Elanda, et d&amp;#39;autres, j&amp;#39;ai d&amp;eacute;couvert que le crime de l&amp;#39;homme &amp;eacute;tait, sans doute, plus grave encore.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;Agrave; l&amp;#39;origine, disent ces mythes, la mort, l&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;, n&amp;#39;existait pas. Elle vint un jour, apport&amp;eacute;e par le l&amp;eacute;zard, nso&amp;rsquo;, de l&amp;#39;esp&amp;egrave;ce &amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;b&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; swe&amp;rsquo;ele153. Le l&amp;eacute;zard mit la mort dans sa queue. Il se fit ensuite prendre par l&amp;#39;homme et, d&amp;#39;un coup sec, en brisa le bout, laissant ainsi la mort entre les mains de l&amp;#39;homme. Celui-ci dut alors se nourrir : il se mit &amp;agrave; consom&amp;shy;mer les plantes et &amp;agrave; tuer les animaux.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ceux-ci, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque se disputaient le titre de roi, mwam&amp;egrave;. L&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phant, ngyo&amp;rsquo;o, revendiquait le tr&amp;ocirc;ne au nom de sa puissance. Mais la petite &amp;laquo; musaraigne &amp;raquo;, &amp;lsquo;apingi, lui prouva qu&amp;#39;elle &amp;eacute;tait plus intelligente que lui : elle le d&amp;eacute;fia &amp;agrave; la course. Alors que le lourd pachyderme se disposait &amp;agrave; foncer, elle grimpa sur sa queue puis, trottinant sur son dos, sauta juste devant la trompe de sa massive monture lorsque celle-ci s&amp;#39;arr&amp;ecirc;ta, croyant triompher. &amp;lsquo;Apingi devint reine. Le chat sauvage m&amp;rsquo;paha (Felis sylvestris lybica FORSTER) attrapa la reine par la queue et la croqua. Il devint roi. Mais son grand fr&amp;egrave;re, le l&amp;eacute;opard, &amp;rsquo;engwe, refusait de lui ob&amp;eacute;ir. Le chat lui proposa de lui apprendre &amp;agrave; chasser, en &amp;eacute;change de sa soumission. Le l&amp;eacute;opard n&amp;#39;en avait cure. Il n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;prouvait pas le besoin de s&amp;#39;alimenter. Toutefois, pour s&amp;#39;amuser, il accepta d&amp;#39;apprendre le secret du chat. Il attrapait donc les ch&amp;egrave;vres par la queue. Mais il les laissait s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;chapper. Le chat comprit qu&amp;#39;il n&amp;#39;en serait jamais le roi. L&amp;#39;homme comprit, lui, que le l&amp;eacute;opard &amp;eacute;tait rest&amp;eacute; myst&amp;eacute;rieusement &amp;eacute;tranger &amp;agrave; la mort.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe49.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 147px; &quot; /&gt; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 44. Figurine du l&amp;eacute;zard &amp;lsquo;esusanyo ya eb&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave; swehele (Cf. Ill. 16). Bois de Crossopterix febrifuga. Lg. 122 mm &amp;nbsp;(Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux) .&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		88&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Dans l&amp;#39;espoir de devenir immortel &amp;agrave; nouveau, il alla trouver le l&amp;eacute;opard et lui proposa, &amp;agrave; son tour, de lui apprendre &amp;agrave; chasser de mani&amp;egrave;re plus performante. Le l&amp;eacute;opard lui r&amp;eacute;pondit de la m&amp;ecirc;me fa&amp;ccedil;on qu&amp;#39;au chat sauvage. Mais l&amp;#39;homme parvint enfin &amp;agrave; s&amp;eacute;duire le fauve en lui vantant la saveur des viandes cuites. Toutefois, en &amp;eacute;change de ses secrets, ceux de la chasse et du feu154, il exigea du l&amp;eacute;opard un morceau de sa queue, imaginant sans doute y retrouver l&amp;rsquo;immortalit&amp;eacute;. Le l&amp;eacute;opard accepta. Il apprit donc de l&amp;#39;homme &amp;agrave; tuer, en &amp;eacute;tranglant sa proie et en l&amp;rsquo;achevant avec ses griffes et ses canines. L&amp;#39;homme ne retrouva point l&amp;#39;immortalit&amp;eacute;. Mais le l&amp;eacute;opard, lui, se vit d&amp;eacute;sormais vou&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la mort - comme tous les animaux dont l&amp;#39;homme &amp;eacute;tait le v&amp;eacute;ritable &amp;laquo;roi&amp;raquo; (pr&amp;eacute;dateur), sans m&amp;ecirc;me qu&amp;#39;ils le sachent.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Saisi d&amp;#39;une col&amp;egrave;re sans bornes contre l&amp;#39;homme, le l&amp;eacute;opard est hant&amp;eacute; depuis lors par le d&amp;eacute;sir sanglant de plonger l&amp;#39;univers dans le chaos mortel des origines. Que le l&amp;eacute;opard puisse r&amp;eacute;aliser ses r&amp;ecirc;ves carnassiers, les Babembe n&amp;#39;en doutent pas. Il peut introduire, disent-ils, l&amp;#39;ombre dans le ciel, le soleil dans la nuit &amp;ndash; et inversement - ou encore ordonner &amp;agrave; la pluie de submerger d&amp;eacute;finitivement la terre. Ils en voient la preuve dans les signatures de la peau du fauve. Selon eux, les roses et les ocelles noirs symbolisent les &amp;eacute;toiles, matonde, dont le l&amp;eacute;opard a d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; invers&amp;eacute; la lumi&amp;egrave;re pour en faire des foyers d&amp;#39;ombre. De m&amp;ecirc;me, la peau blanche du cou et du ventre du fauve est l&amp;#39;ombre maudite, faussement invers&amp;eacute;e. Ses yeux verts et luminescents confondent le/la lune et le soleil, l&amp;#39;eau et le feu155. Seule, la couleur ambigu&amp;euml; de la robe, celle du ciel, laisse un espoir : elle &amp;eacute;voque toujours le soleil, bien que cr&amp;eacute;pusculaire. Nous savons, en effet, que le l&amp;eacute;opard peut an&amp;eacute;antir l&amp;#39;ordre cosmique. Il est en mesure de transiter entre les douze territoires qui en d&amp;eacute;finissent la carte logique. Il peut &amp;eacute;galement en d&amp;eacute;sarticuler les fronti&amp;egrave;res.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Apaiser la col&amp;egrave;re du l&amp;eacute;opard en lui sacrifiant156 plus que symbolique&amp;shy;ment leur vie d&amp;#39;homme, M&amp;rsquo;t&amp;ugrave;, au nom de l&amp;#39;homme, auteur du crime originel, telle est sans doute la raison, enfouie dans la m&amp;eacute;moire la plus lointaine, de la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose des Bam&amp;egrave; en l&amp;eacute;opards. En esp&amp;eacute;rant que le f&amp;eacute;lin abandonne ses r&amp;ecirc;ves de N&amp;eacute;ant et qu&amp;#39;il accepte d&amp;#39;assumer pleinement sa fonction originelle d&amp;#39;ordonnateur du monde culturel - et cosmique - que l&amp;#39;imaginaire bembe, de toute &amp;eacute;vidence, lui reconna&amp;icirc;t.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		C&amp;#39;est en effet &amp;laquo; le &amp;raquo; l&amp;eacute;opard comme tel, qui est charg&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;organisation des rituels les plus importants qui rythment la vie sociale des Babembe, r&amp;eacute;actualisant r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement ainsi quelques-uns des fondements majeurs de l&amp;#39;anthropologie qui en commande le sens.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		89&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe50.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 390px; height: 336px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 45. &amp;lsquo;Acw&amp;eacute; na &amp;egrave;luba ya &amp;lsquo;asaho. Figure masqu&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;asaho &amp;laquo; tambourineuse &amp;raquo;. Bois, kaolin, ocre rouge et brun. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les ronflements du rhombe157 sacr&amp;eacute;, l&amp;#39;esprit Tembwe (forme sans doute zoba, parfois prononc&amp;eacute;e Hembwe [conforme &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;egrave;bembe]), apanage exclusif des Bam&amp;egrave;, n&amp;#39;est autre que la voix du l&amp;eacute;opard. Blanc d&amp;#39;un c&amp;ocirc;t&amp;eacute;, rouge de l&amp;#39;autre, aux bords contrast&amp;eacute;s, il s&amp;#39;orne parfois d&amp;#39;un cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on pyrograv&amp;eacute; ou sculpt&amp;eacute; en l&amp;eacute;ger relief. Le cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on, symbole de toute m&amp;eacute;tamorphose, indique la polyvalence du L&amp;eacute;opard-Tembwe : ma&amp;icirc;tre de la paix (blanc), de la guerre (rouge) et de la mort (noir). La voix du rhombe s&amp;#39;investit d&amp;#39;une fonction essentiellement disjonctive : elle ordonne aux femmes notamment, de quitter le cercle qu&amp;#39;elle trace de ses ronflements rauques. La soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, par exemple, peut faire appel au rhombe Tembwe du Bwam&amp;egrave; lorsque le dieu dont elle assure les incarnations masqu&amp;eacute;es exige que ses apparitions demeurent secr&amp;egrave;tes - une r&amp;egrave;gle que les femmes sont, selon les Babembe, impuissantes &amp;agrave; observer158.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		90&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe51.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 200px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 46a et b. Le dieu Tembwe. Rhombe (Bull-Roarer). Face nocturne o&amp;ugrave; figure un cam&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;on Kembe et un croissant de lune. Face diurne orn&amp;eacute;e de deux glyphes : en haut, moustaches du L&amp;eacute;opard (symbole de l&amp;rsquo;animal tout entier), au centre, triple cercle. Charges magiques ins&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es dans le haut, fix&amp;eacute;es au copal. Bois. Noirci au feu. Corde de raphia. Calcaire d&amp;rsquo;Iridina Spekii. Ocre rouge et brun. Lg. : 282 mm. (Cf. aussi l&amp;rsquo;Ill. 51). (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe52.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 179px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Mais Tembwe &amp;eacute;tait avant tout le ma&amp;icirc;tre et l&amp;#39;organisateur159 du rituel collectif le plus important de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; bembe : celui de la circoncision, B&amp;ugrave;tende ou &amp;rsquo;&amp;Egrave;tomba (litt. &amp;laquo; &amp;nbsp;le cadavre &amp;raquo;).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ici encore, il trace une fronti&amp;egrave;re absolument infranchissable entre l&amp;#39;enceinte initiatique, r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;e aux hommes, et le monde des femmes. Plus particuli&amp;egrave;rement, il rend impossible tout contact, tout &amp;eacute;change entre les m&amp;egrave;res et leurs enfants. Le rhombe renforce ainsi le cloisonnement existant entre deux &amp;laquo; cultures &amp;raquo; ou, mieux, deux classes de &amp;laquo; magies &amp;raquo; et de savoirs : celle de la femme, inn&amp;eacute;e, vou&amp;eacute;e aux gen&amp;egrave;ses lentes de la nature, et celle de l&amp;#39;homme, acquise, fond&amp;eacute;e sur le savoir, le travail et la violence. Mais en ordonnant une s&amp;eacute;paration aussi nette entre les sexes, puis entre les m&amp;egrave;res et leurs fils, Tembwe ne fait que rappeler l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;vidence des conditions m&amp;ecirc;mes de l&amp;#39;ordre social. En livrant la r&amp;egrave;gle qui rend possible la r&amp;eacute;union de l&amp;#39;homme et de la femme : celle de la prohibition de l&amp;#39;inceste, il pr&amp;eacute;side &amp;eacute;galement au mariage de leur magie respective.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		91&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Nous le savons : la circoncision et l&amp;#39;initiation qui lui succ&amp;egrave;de sont explici&amp;shy;tement d&amp;eacute;finies, par les Babembe, comme une &amp;laquo; mise &amp;agrave; mort &amp;raquo; (une &amp;nbsp;manducation) suivie d&amp;#39;un r&amp;eacute;enfantement. Pour &amp;ecirc;tre n&amp;eacute; du seul corps de la femme, l&amp;#39;adolescent n&amp;#39;est jamais qu&amp;#39;une &amp;eacute;bauche d&amp;#39;homme. Seul, le &amp;laquo; reforgeage &amp;raquo; du corps, apr&amp;egrave;s son assassinat symbolique, conf&amp;eacute;rera &amp;agrave; celui-ci une existence r&amp;eacute;elle, offerte aux lois et aux normes de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;thique et de l&amp;#39;anthropologie bembe. Or, le circonciseur, ngaliba ou wondolomina (litt. : &amp;laquo; celui qui avale ce qui somnole &amp;raquo;), qui de son herminette, mbacyo, sanglante &amp;laquo; tue &amp;raquo; et &amp;laquo; avale &amp;raquo;160 le circoncis est explicitement assimil&amp;eacute;, &amp;agrave; ce moment, &amp;agrave; Tembwe lui-m&amp;ecirc;me, au l&amp;eacute;opard161 qui se proclame ainsi, de mani&amp;egrave;re d&amp;eacute;cisive, h&amp;eacute;ros, voire &amp;laquo; dieu &amp;raquo; de la culture, puisqu&amp;#39;il cr&amp;eacute;e litt&amp;eacute;ralement l&amp;#39;homme, m&amp;rsquo;tu.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe53.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 448px; height: 247px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 47 Mbacyo wa wondolomina. Herminette du circonciseur. Bois. Fer. Lg. 33 cm. La lame en est assimil&amp;eacute;e aux dents du l&amp;eacute;opard. (Photo&amp;copy; de P. P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		92&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe54.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 141px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 48. El&amp;ugrave;ba ya b&amp;ugrave;tende. Masque de type cwecwe &amp;nbsp;intervenant dans les rituels de circoncision b&amp;ugrave;tende dont la propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; revenait au &amp;nbsp;Bwam&amp;egrave; bwa B&amp;ugrave;gabo. Bois, kaolin, h&amp;eacute;matite. Ht. 455 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P. P. Gossiaux). Collection priv&amp;eacute;e. (Pour une &amp;eacute;tude de ce masque, cf. Masques et rites de circoncision&amp;hellip; &amp;agrave; para&amp;icirc;tre sur www.anthroposys.be.)&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		93&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;a href=&quot;/fichiers/bembe55.jpg&quot;&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe55.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 250px; height: 448px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 49. Bis&amp;ugrave;sanyo bya Bashi&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;l&amp;ugrave;ca. Couple d&amp;rsquo;anc&amp;ecirc;tres. Art bembe/zoba. Bois (Cordia ?). R&amp;eacute;sine et huile de ricin. Ht. 164 &amp;nbsp;et 171 mm. (Photo&amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		94&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour les Babembe, le symbole ou, mieux, le n&amp;oelig;ud synecdotique de toute culture est le mariage : il r&amp;eacute;alise, en effet, l&amp;#39;union des magies inn&amp;eacute;e (femme) et acquise (homme). Il conjugue donc les deux ordres concevables du savoir et du pouvoir, cela dans le but de perp&amp;eacute;tuer la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; et ses traditions.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le m&amp;ecirc;me symbolisme s&amp;#39;impose avec une &amp;eacute;vidence semblable chez de nombreux peuples voisins des Babembe, apparent&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; ceux-ci. Or, certains des rituels les plus importants qu&amp;#39;observent ces peuples &amp;eacute;tablissent explicitement un lien &amp;eacute;tiologique entre le l&amp;eacute;opard, l&amp;#39;institution du mariage et la permanence de la tradition. Le L&amp;eacute;opard s&amp;#39;impose l&amp;agrave; aussi comme h&amp;eacute;ros culturel, &amp;laquo; dieu &amp;raquo; civilisa&amp;shy;teur. Ainsi, les Balega162, les &amp;laquo; grands fr&amp;egrave;res &amp;raquo; des Babembe, soumettent la d&amp;eacute;pouille du l&amp;eacute;opard, ngozi, &amp;agrave; un rituel fort semblable &amp;agrave; celui auquel ob&amp;eacute;issent ces derniers : ils le dressent sur une civi&amp;egrave;re, le couronnent d&amp;#39;une coiffe de plumes de perroquet, mukusu, etc. Apr&amp;egrave;s lui avoir rendu hommage, ils lui ouvrent le ventre, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;visc&amp;egrave;rent et d&amp;eacute;posent dans la cavit&amp;eacute; abdominale les instruments (ou leurs r&amp;eacute;ductions) suivants. Le rasoir, kyubo, du circonciseur Kimbilikiti, dieu-rhombe &amp;eacute;quivalent de Tembwe163, est plac&amp;eacute; dans le haut de la cavit&amp;eacute;. Pr&amp;egrave;s du flanc int&amp;eacute;rieur droit (masculin) du ventre, ils disposent une lance, isumu, ou une hache, isaga, et un marteau, nondo - symboles clairs des travaux sp&amp;eacute;cifiquement masculins - ; contre le gauche, un sac, ngobi &amp;nbsp;dont les m&amp;egrave;res se servent pour porter leurs enfants sur le dos, ou un petit panier, mukumba, et le couteau, mwele, de la femme. Entre les deux, une aiguille d&amp;#39;os, ikele, utilis&amp;eacute;e aussi bien par les hommes (corroyeurs, vanniers) que les femmes (travaux d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;toffe), embl&amp;egrave;me sexuel assez clair, r&amp;eacute;alise le mariage des deux pans du diptyque symbolique ainsi r&amp;eacute;alis&amp;eacute;. Les Bam&amp;egrave; bourrent le ventre du l&amp;eacute;opard, ngozi, de feuilles de kitembele (Amaranthus oleraceus LINN&amp;Eacute;). Le ventre est ensuite recousu. Les &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments que rec&amp;egrave;le ainsi la &amp;laquo; matrice &amp;raquo; du l&amp;eacute;opard vont subir pendant vingt-quatre heures l&amp;#39;embryogen&amp;egrave;se qui mettra au monde l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;&amp;shy;gralit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;univers de l&amp;#39;homme et de son avenir - l&amp;#39;amarante &amp;eacute;tant l&amp;#39;embl&amp;egrave;me de la communaut&amp;eacute;, de sa post&amp;eacute;rit&amp;eacute; et de la tradition.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chez les Babembe et les Balega164, &amp;rsquo;Engwe et Ngozi cr&amp;eacute;ent symboliquement l&amp;#39;homme - et son univers.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		D&amp;egrave;s lors, la m&amp;eacute;tamorphose de l&amp;#39;homme en l&amp;eacute;opard165, que nous pensions &amp;ecirc;tre un &amp;laquo; sacrifice &amp;raquo;, cache peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, au fond d&amp;#39;une m&amp;eacute;moire perdue comme telle, un secret plus grave : celui du meurtre d&amp;#39;un &amp;laquo; dieu &amp;raquo; primitif par l&amp;#39;homme.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Que le l&amp;eacute;opard ait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; l&amp;#39;un des anciens &amp;laquo; dieux &amp;raquo; de la r&amp;eacute;gion des Grands Lacs semble assez vraisemblable, lorsqu&amp;#39;on sait, gr&amp;acirc;ce au P&amp;egrave;re Van der Burgt, qui est sans doute le dernier &amp;agrave; avoir pu recueillir ce mythe en 1896, que les Bamoso (Barundi) et les Baha - voisins des Babembe166 - croyaient que le l&amp;eacute;opard (Ingwi) &amp;eacute;tait le cr&amp;eacute;ateur de &amp;laquo; dix &amp;raquo; (chiffre symbolique ?) esp&amp;egrave;ces d&amp;#39;animaux diff&amp;eacute;rentes qui, chacune, en avait engendr&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;autres :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		95&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chose curieuse - &amp;eacute;crit Van der Burgt- les Warundi font descendre, par g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ration de certains animaux, d&amp;#39;autres, d&amp;#39;esp&amp;egrave;ce toute diff&amp;eacute;rente. Ainsi, par exemple, le l&amp;eacute;opard a produit dix autres b&amp;ecirc;tes ou fauves... Ingwi (le l&amp;eacute;opard) produisit, entre autres umungomba, inkarra et inkima...167&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ces noms d&amp;eacute;signent trois esp&amp;egrave;ces de singes (cercopith&amp;egrave;que, &amp;eacute;rythroc&amp;egrave;be, colobe), distingu&amp;eacute;es par leur couleur. Singuli&amp;egrave;rement, Van der Burgt rapporte au m&amp;ecirc;me endroit, que les singes passent dans les r&amp;eacute;gions qu&amp;#39;il a &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;es pour des hommes d&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s... Autrement dit, le l&amp;eacute;opard aurait, tout d&amp;#39;abord, engendr&amp;eacute; diverses esp&amp;egrave;ces d&amp;#39;hommes.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Ainsi, &amp;agrave; la fin du 19e si&amp;egrave;cle, subsistait encore, dans la r&amp;eacute;gion des Grands Lacs, le souvenir tr&amp;egrave;s vague d&amp;#39;une religion dont le L&amp;eacute;opard constituait l&amp;#39;un des p&amp;ocirc;les - dont il &amp;eacute;tait m&amp;ecirc;me, peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, le &amp;laquo; Dieu &amp;raquo; principal.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		O&amp;rsquo;eta Tembwe m&amp;rsquo;mw&amp;egrave;lung&amp;ugrave;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;owa m&amp;rsquo;binda&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Celui qui voudrait surpasser Tembwe,&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		mourra &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;cras&amp;eacute; ( &amp;eacute;trangl&amp;eacute;) dans la brousse.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		proclame le dieu-rhombe, le dieu-l&amp;eacute;opard, lors de ses redoutables apparitions.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;En &amp;laquo; surpassant &amp;raquo; le l&amp;eacute;opard, lorsqu&amp;#39;ils l&amp;#39;ont remplac&amp;eacute; par leurs dieux anthropomorphes actuels, les Babembe ont peut-&amp;ecirc;tre imagin&amp;eacute; vivre en l&amp;eacute;opards pour pouvoir mourir en hommes et non &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;cras&amp;eacute;s dans la brousse &amp;raquo;168.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe56.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 190px; height: 197px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 50. (Photo&amp;copy; de PP. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		*&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le Mwam&amp;egrave; Mya&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;ka accepta un jour de nous montrer ml&amp;ugrave;biso (en secret) la collection des onze cr&amp;acirc;nes qu&amp;rsquo;il conservait de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres agnatiques successifs. Avant de les poser soigneusement sur le sol, recouvert de peaux diverses, il avait tenu &amp;agrave; sortir de leur pyxide respective, un cr&amp;acirc;ne de l&amp;eacute;opard (celui-ci &amp;eacute;tait, m&amp;rsquo;avait-il sembl&amp;eacute; - presque fossile) et un autre de gorille. Ensuite, devant ces deux cr&amp;acirc;nes, il avait dispos&amp;eacute;, par ordre d&amp;eacute;croissant, les cr&amp;acirc;nes de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres. A l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;poque, ce c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monial ne m&amp;rsquo;avait autrement surpris : j&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tais habitu&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; voir constamment associ&amp;eacute;s dans les phases les plus importantes du parcours initiatique du Bwam&amp;egrave; les cr&amp;acirc;nes des hommes &amp;agrave; ceux de nombreux animaux. J&amp;rsquo;y voyais la volont&amp;eacute; de faciliter l&amp;rsquo;identification de l&amp;rsquo;homme &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;animal &amp;nbsp;dont il r&amp;eacute;clamait le titre.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Mais le rituel qu&amp;rsquo;avait observ&amp;eacute; Mya&amp;rsquo;&amp;ugrave;ka, l&amp;rsquo;ordre qu&amp;rsquo;il avait suivi dans le d&amp;eacute;voilement successif et la disposition des cr&amp;acirc;nes, conservait peut-&amp;ecirc;tre la m&amp;eacute;moire d&amp;rsquo;une arch&amp;eacute;ologie dont les mythes ou les contes n&amp;rsquo;avaient conserv&amp;eacute; que de rares traces, confuses (celles dont fait &amp;eacute;tat Van der Burgt). &amp;nbsp;Celle d&amp;rsquo;un temps o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;rsquo;homme avait &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; au rang de dieux, certains animaux qui incarnaient sans doute le mieux &amp;agrave; ses yeux, l&amp;rsquo;ordre et le d&amp;eacute;sordre du monde, l&amp;rsquo;&amp;ecirc;tre et le chaos. Et cela, &amp;nbsp;pour en conjurer les cycles fragiles.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Quelques rares objets sacr&amp;eacute;s, tel le rhombe que l&amp;rsquo;on vient de d&amp;eacute;crire, et certains des masques les plus anciens que d&amp;eacute;tiennent les initi&amp;eacute;s Bacwa du dieu &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, lui-m&amp;ecirc;me assimil&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; un L&amp;eacute;opard dans les nombreux couplets qui en rythment les apparitions diurnes, portent certains glyphes &amp;ndash; que seuls les plus ag&amp;eacute;s pouvaient encore lire, lorsque j&amp;rsquo;ai entrepris mes enqu&amp;ecirc;tes - qui rappellent cette ancienne th&amp;eacute;ogonie. Ainsi, sur les plans de ces objets, peut-on distinguer, &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tage sup&amp;eacute;rieur, un signe constitu&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;une double (ou triple) barre transversale du centre de laquelle jaillissent deux doubles (ou triples) traits obliques, fomant un angle droit, duquel &amp;eacute;mane une frise de rhombes qui relie l&amp;rsquo;id&amp;eacute;ogramme sup&amp;eacute;rieur &amp;agrave; un signe constitu&amp;eacute; de trois (ou quatre) cercles concentriques.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/bembe57.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 386px; height: 1570px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		BEMBE ILL. 51. Flanc d&amp;rsquo;un tr&amp;egrave;s ancien &amp;egrave;cwab&amp;ugrave;ka y&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga (P&amp;eacute;riode pr&amp;eacute;-arabe). Ht. 20 cm. (Photo &amp;copy; de P.P. Gossiaux).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		97&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ces motifs, on le devine, sont polys&amp;eacute;miques et se pr&amp;ecirc;tent &amp;agrave; des lectures diff&amp;eacute;rentes. Mais, parmi les nombreuses traductions que m&amp;rsquo;en ont donn&amp;eacute;es les plus anciens de mes informateurs, se retrouvaient r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement les suivantes :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		a) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;poils (ncwele) de la moustache du l&amp;eacute;opard, synecdoque de l&amp;rsquo;animal tout entier. Symbole du principe des choses, sans doute incr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		ba) losanges : les quatre points cardinaux dans la quadruple dimension verticale de l&amp;rsquo;Univers (ciel, terre, sous la terre, eau). Rythme, sagesse, union. Universalit&amp;eacute;. Discipline.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		bb) les m&amp;ecirc;mes losanges peuvent &amp;eacute;voquer la foudre, l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;clair : chaos et d&amp;eacute;sordre. An&amp;eacute;antissement.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		b) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;lsquo;alung&amp;egrave; : cercles int&amp;eacute;gr&amp;eacute;s ou concentriques : le monde, l&amp;rsquo;ensemble des &amp;ecirc;tres cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute;s (animaux, femme). L&amp;rsquo;ordre social : la communaut&amp;eacute;, le clan. Le soleil, les &amp;eacute;toiles. Les ocelles du l&amp;eacute;opard.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Tout ceci ne forme que des indices. Mais ils sembleront &amp;nbsp;moins ind&amp;eacute;cis lorsqu&amp;rsquo;on leur opposera l&amp;rsquo;impr&amp;eacute;cision de la science qu&amp;rsquo;ont les membres les plus &amp;acirc;g&amp;eacute;s du &amp;nbsp;Bwam&amp;egrave;, d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Abeca, le dieu officiellement reconnu par &amp;nbsp;les Babembe, un dieu dont les traits ont sans doute &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;labor&amp;eacute;s et forg&amp;eacute;s progressivement sur le mod&amp;egrave;le du dieu anthropomorphe chr&amp;eacute;tien. (Une premi&amp;egrave;re Mission de P&amp;egrave;res Blancs occupa l&amp;rsquo; Ubembe (Masanze) de 1880 &amp;agrave; 1884169.) De m&amp;ecirc;me, les Bam&amp;egrave; m&amp;rsquo;ont toujours sembl&amp;eacute; fort ind&amp;eacute;cis, r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;s, muets, quand je les interrogeais sur la nature et les fonctions des statues, figures d&amp;rsquo;anc&amp;ecirc;tres ou de morts (bisusanyo bya bashi &amp;lsquo;&amp;ugrave;luca), dont le culte revenait, on va &amp;nbsp;le voir, aux &amp;laquo; patriarches &amp;raquo; qui r&amp;eacute;clamaient leur pouvoir, pr&amp;eacute;cis&amp;eacute;ment, d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Abeca.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Pour eux, le &amp;nbsp;culte d&amp;ucirc; aux Anc&amp;ecirc;tres s&amp;rsquo;adresse aux cr&amp;acirc;nes qu&amp;rsquo;ils d&amp;eacute;tiennent de leurs p&amp;egrave;res.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		*&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo;existence d&amp;rsquo;une double strate dans la chronologie du fait religieux pourrait &amp;eacute;clairer, par ailleurs, l&amp;rsquo;une des &amp;eacute;nigmes qui &amp;nbsp;intriguent, depuis longtemps, les &amp;eacute;thnologues de la zone des Grands Lacs : soit la coexistence d&amp;rsquo;un double pouvoir dans les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s segmentaires non seulement de cette &amp;nbsp;r&amp;eacute;gion mais dans de tr&amp;egrave;s nombreuses populations du Congo septentrional (&amp;lsquo;Ankutshu, &amp;lsquo;Atetela, Bakumu, Balega, Bambole, Banande, Bapere, &amp;nbsp;Metuku et bien d&amp;rsquo;autres).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		98&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le pouvoir politique, au sens strict, y &amp;eacute;tait exerc&amp;eacute; par les &amp;laquo; anciens &amp;raquo;, chefs de famille au sens &amp;eacute;tendu, chefs de lignage ou encore de village mwene mb&amp;ugrave;ka. Il se trouvait l&amp;eacute;gitim&amp;eacute; par les rapports privil&amp;eacute;gi&amp;eacute;s que ceux-ci entretenaient avec les morts ou les &amp;laquo; anc&amp;ecirc;tres &amp;raquo; au culte desquels ils pr&amp;eacute;sidaient et dont la lign&amp;eacute;e ascendante &amp;eacute;manait, selon les g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogies officielles (sans cesse recompos&amp;eacute;es), d&amp;rsquo;un premier homme (M&amp;rsquo;mbondo, chez les Babembe) cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute; lui-m&amp;ecirc;me par un dieu anthropomorphe &amp;ndash; dont les traits, il est vrai, demeuraient &amp;nbsp;souvent impr&amp;eacute;cis.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Comme repr&amp;eacute;sentant des anc&amp;ecirc;tres, premiers occupants du sol (&amp;egrave;s&amp;egrave;), l&amp;rsquo; Ula (a&amp;icirc;n&amp;eacute;) avait le droit de proc&amp;eacute;der au partage des terres, pour en donner l&amp;rsquo;usufruit &amp;agrave; ses sujets.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ces anc&amp;ecirc;tres demeuraient les v&amp;eacute;ritables propri&amp;eacute;taires de la terre. Or, les premiers occupants historiques170 de l&amp;rsquo;Ubembe &amp;eacute;taient des Bacwa - soit des groupes de Pygm&amp;eacute;es. Nul ne le contestait. &amp;nbsp;Seuls, les a&amp;icirc;n&amp;eacute;s &amp;nbsp;des clans bembe, arriv&amp;eacute;s les premiers dans la r&amp;eacute;gion et qui s&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;taient assimil&amp;eacute;s aux Bacwa (c&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tait notamment le cas du clan des Bashikalangwa et celui des Bashi&amp;rsquo;mukindj&amp;egrave; 171), pouvaient donc faire valoir l&amp;eacute;gitimement leurs droits sur le sol.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo;on mesure ici l&amp;rsquo;importance des g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogies fictives (parfois doubl&amp;eacute;es d&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; &amp;eacute;pop&amp;eacute;es &amp;raquo; tout aussi &amp;laquo; po&amp;eacute;tiques &amp;raquo;) qui faisaient &amp;eacute;maner tous les clans bembe d&amp;rsquo;un seul anc&amp;ecirc;tre. Mais les initi&amp;eacute;s n&amp;rsquo;ignoraient rien du caract&amp;egrave;re factice de ces arborescences g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogiques.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		C&amp;rsquo;est dire que l&amp;rsquo;autorit&amp;eacute; de la plupart des chefs &amp;eacute;tait fort peu contraignante. Elle se voyait r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement contest&amp;eacute;e. Chez les Babembe, les &amp;laquo; chefs de village &amp;raquo; se montr&amp;egrave;rent toujours impuissants &amp;agrave; affirmer d&amp;eacute;finitivement leur l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; &amp;ndash; qui &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;tait, on vient de le voir, souvent fictive. La comp&amp;eacute;tition pour le pouvoir entra&amp;icirc;nait, au dire de la tradition, d&amp;rsquo;incessantes dissidences. Les dispersions de villages &amp;eacute;taient continuelles. Les fragments qui en r&amp;eacute;sultaient allaient se reconstruire, parfois &amp;agrave; des centaines de kilom&amp;egrave;tres de leur lieu d&amp;rsquo;origine, en entit&amp;eacute;s ind&amp;eacute;pendantes. Les agents de l&amp;rsquo;Etat Ind&amp;eacute;pendant du Congo, puis du Congo Belge, furent longtemps att&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s par le spectacle de ces &amp;laquo; centaines de chefferies &amp;raquo; mouvantes et insaisissables. Les rapports administratifs de l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;poque d&amp;eacute;crivent r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement les Babembe comme des groupes, &amp;nbsp;des &amp;laquo; hordes &amp;raquo; semi-nomades, autonomes, qui passaient une bonne partie de leur temps (&amp;laquo; deux mois de l&amp;rsquo;ann&amp;eacute;e &amp;raquo;, pr&amp;eacute;cise un rapport172) &amp;agrave; d&amp;eacute;placer leurs villages. Ces remarques correspondaient &amp;agrave; une certaine r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; : outre les motifs internes qu&amp;rsquo;ils avaient de se scinder, les Babembe cherchaient alors &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;viter les regroupements de villages (autour de quelques axes routiers) &amp;nbsp;voulus par l&amp;rsquo;Administration coloniale afin de percevoir plus ais&amp;eacute;ment l&amp;rsquo;imp&amp;ocirc;t et organiser le travail obligatoire (coton). Non seulement les Babembe fuyaient, mais ils refusaient de reconna&amp;icirc;tre que leur lignage appart&amp;icirc;nt &amp;agrave; la souche proprement bembe, et, s&amp;rsquo;inventant des g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogies imaginaires, ils se donnaient des noms &amp;laquo; ethniques &amp;raquo; parfois aussi fantaisites qu&amp;rsquo;hilarants (les Agents territoriaux n&amp;rsquo;avaient gu&amp;egrave;re pris la peine d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tudier l&amp;rsquo;&amp;egrave;bembe).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		99&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo;autre pouvoir, que l&amp;rsquo;on s&amp;rsquo;aventurera &amp;agrave; qualifier de mystique, &amp;eacute;tait d&amp;eacute;tenu par de grandes soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes &amp;ndash; du type de celle que l&amp;rsquo;on vient de d&amp;eacute;crire. Il reposait sur les liens complexes, allant souvent jusqu&amp;rsquo;&amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;identification, de leurs membres avec un animal mythique, assimil&amp;eacute; au L&amp;eacute;opard (plus rarement au Lion, au &amp;nbsp;Serpent173), qui incarnait l&amp;rsquo;Etre, la Nature et passait sans doute pour le cr&amp;eacute;ateur des animaux et des hommes. Chez les Babembe, ce pouvoir &amp;eacute;tait d&amp;rsquo;essence religieuse : il entendait conjurer un Etre Myst&amp;eacute;rieux, apparemment incr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute; (&amp;laquo; le &amp;raquo; L&amp;eacute;opard) et dont les caprices redoutables (s&amp;egrave;cheresse, temp&amp;ecirc;tes, tremblements de terre, maladies, etc.) que l&amp;rsquo;on imputait, de mani&amp;egrave;re tr&amp;egrave;s anthropocentrique &amp;ndash; ici comme dans de nombreuses autres cultures -, &amp;agrave; un p&amp;eacute;ch&amp;eacute; originel commis par l&amp;rsquo;homme. Ce pouvoir religieux, thaumaturgique, devait s&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tendre &amp;agrave; toutes les sph&amp;egrave;res de la vie sociale : politique, &amp;eacute;conomique, juridique, etc.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		La puissance de ces soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s r&amp;eacute;sidait dans leur unit&amp;eacute;, cautionn&amp;eacute;e par ce v&amp;eacute;ritable &amp;laquo; contrat &amp;raquo; que stipulaient pour chacun, les conditions d&amp;rsquo;acc&amp;egrave;s &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;initiation. M&amp;ecirc;me lorsque les membres de ces soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s se r&amp;eacute;unissaient ordinairement en loges s&amp;eacute;par&amp;eacute;es (malanda), selon les clans, r&amp;eacute;gions ou sous-r&amp;eacute;gions, elles tenaient des assises communes (ibulu) r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;res o&amp;ugrave; les d&amp;eacute;cisions qui regardaient les int&amp;eacute;r&amp;ecirc;ts de la collectivit&amp;eacute; tout enti&amp;egrave;re &amp;eacute;taient prises : ouverture des campagnes de chasse, d&amp;eacute;fense du territoire, d&amp;eacute;clarations de guerre (le plus souvent d&amp;eacute;fensive, chez les Babembe). Surtout, il leur revenait d&amp;rsquo;organiser les grands rituels collectifs qui assuraient le passage des adolescents &amp;agrave; la classe des hommes adultes. L&amp;agrave;, tous les individus qui se reconnaissaient &amp;nbsp;des liens de parent&amp;eacute;, m&amp;ecirc;mes t&amp;eacute;nus (lesquels sans doute se seraient laisser oublier suite aux incessantes segmentations des lignages et des familles, si des g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogies officielles ne venaient les remettre en m&amp;eacute;moire), &amp;eacute;taient soumis &amp;agrave; la m&amp;ecirc;me &amp;eacute;ducation. Tous recevaient l&amp;rsquo;h&amp;eacute;ritage d&amp;rsquo;une m&amp;ecirc;me Tradition qui leur livrait les m&amp;ecirc;mes r&amp;egrave;gles de la vie sociale, morale et philosophique. Les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes f&amp;eacute;minines &amp;ndash; peu &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;es - (Bahumbwa, m&amp;egrave;res et &amp;eacute;pouses des Bam&amp;egrave;, qui assuraient, chez les Babembe, l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;ducation et l&amp;rsquo;initiation des adolescentes et des jeunes m&amp;egrave;res) jouaient pour les femmes, un r&amp;ocirc;le comparable.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Chez les Babembe, le Bwam&amp;egrave; controla&amp;icirc;t, rappelons-le, les activit&amp;eacute;s des autres grandes soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes, notamment celle d&amp;rsquo;&amp;rsquo;Elanda, d&amp;rsquo; &amp;lsquo;Al&amp;ugrave;nga, de M&amp;rsquo;m&amp;ugrave;&amp;rsquo;i, auxquelles il d&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;gait, en somme, quelques-unes de ses pr&amp;eacute;rogatives.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Alors que le pouvoir &amp;laquo; patriarcal &amp;raquo;, celui des chefs de village et les contestations r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;res qu&amp;rsquo;en suscitait l&amp;rsquo;exercice, &amp;nbsp;impliquait la menace permanente de l&amp;rsquo;anarchie &amp;ndash; voire de la dissolution des groupes &amp;laquo; nationaux &amp;raquo; -, l&amp;rsquo;autorit&amp;eacute; des grandes soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes &amp;nbsp;&amp;eacute;tait de nature &amp;agrave; maintenir et renforcer l&amp;rsquo;unit&amp;eacute; et l&amp;rsquo;harmonie des m&amp;ecirc;mes groupes et d&amp;rsquo;en cristalliser l&amp;rsquo;identit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		100&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Un adage bembe, fort connu, affirme :&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Bwam&amp;egrave; i &amp;egrave;s&amp;egrave;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Le Bwam&amp;egrave; est la terre &amp;nbsp;(l&amp;rsquo;Etre).&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		L&amp;rsquo;on en saisit ici toute la signification.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		*&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Entre ces deux ordres de pouvoir &amp;ndash; l&amp;rsquo;un politique, bas&amp;eacute; sur le droit du sang, l&amp;rsquo;autre plus mystique, fond&amp;eacute; sur un v&amp;eacute;ritable &amp;nbsp;contrat -, les rapports furent souvent complexes. L&amp;rsquo;on devine que les chefs coutumiers, si souvent contest&amp;eacute;s, ne pouvaient que rechercher la protection des grands soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s secr&amp;egrave;tes : ils pouvaient en faire partie, sans en avoir n&amp;eacute;cessairement le droit &amp;ndash; en tant que tels. Aussi les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s soumettaient-elles &amp;agrave; de lourdes redevances les chefs qu&amp;rsquo;elles n&amp;rsquo;avaient pas admis dans leur rang. Sans cela, les chefs se voyaient destitu&amp;eacute;s, ou &amp;eacute;limin&amp;eacute;s.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Les conflits qu&amp;rsquo;impliquait fatalement la co-existence de deux pouvoirs d&amp;rsquo;essence distincte, ne pouvaient qu&amp;rsquo;inciter le Bwami, dans certaines r&amp;eacute;gions des Grands Lacs, &amp;agrave; s&amp;rsquo;emparer du pouvoir politique : ce fut le cas chez les Bavira, Bafulero, Bashi, Barundi, Baha, etc. o&amp;ugrave; le Mwami &amp;eacute;tait, &amp;agrave; la fois, chef religieux et politique174 Ce ne fut pas le cas chez les Babembe, Balega, Bazimba, etc. o&amp;ugrave; le Bwam&amp;egrave; (ou Bwami) &amp;nbsp;refusa toujours (sauf accidentellement) d&amp;rsquo;assimiler le pouvoir &amp;laquo; politique &amp;raquo; - pour &amp;nbsp;demeurer ainsi une instance unique entre ce que nous serons tent&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;appeler l&amp;rsquo;Ordre de l&amp;rsquo;Etre (&amp;egrave;s&amp;egrave;, &amp;nbsp;terre) et le pouvoir, et entre ce dernier et le peuple b&amp;ugrave;longo, qui pouvait y d&amp;eacute;couvrir un recours ultime contre le chaos du monde et de l&amp;rsquo;homme.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Le colon arabe puis belge, ayant choisi la politique de &amp;laquo; l&amp;rsquo;administration indirecte &amp;raquo;, ne pouvait s&amp;rsquo;appuyer que sur les seuls chefs reconnus, soit les &amp;laquo; chefs coutumiers &amp;raquo;, les chefs de lignage. Il serait donc int&amp;eacute;ressant de voir comment l&amp;rsquo;administration arabe puis belge sut g&amp;eacute;rer, ou pas, le probl&amp;egrave;me que posait l&amp;rsquo;existence d&amp;rsquo;un autre pouvoir &amp;ndash; secret - qui fut, pour elle, le plus redoutable des concurrents.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Ce sera l&amp;rsquo;objet de la troisi&amp;egrave;me partie de cet essai.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Pr&amp;eacute;lablement publi&amp;eacute; in Ces animaux que l&amp;#39;on choisit d&amp;#39;inhumer.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Contribution &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude de la place de l&amp;#39;animal dans les rites fun&amp;eacute;raires,&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		Actes du Colloque d&amp;#39;histoire des connaissances zoologiques tenu &amp;agrave; Li&amp;egrave;ge le 20 mars 1999, Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge, L. Bodson, 2000, p. 169-269.&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;Article revu, corrig&amp;eacute; et consid&amp;eacute;rablement augment&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;dit&amp;eacute; sur le web le 29 juillet 2006&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;div&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Tue, 04 Oct 2011 14:34:48 GMT</pubDate>
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      <item>
         <title>Masque Fang</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FMasque%2BFang-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;p&gt;	&lt;span class=&quot;long_text&quot; id=&quot;result_box&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot;&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Anne-Louise Amanieu&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Ecole du Louvre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Specialty Arts of Africa&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;December 2007&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Fang mask society Ngil, Gabon, Pavilion des Sessions at the Louvre&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;IDENTIFICATION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Fang mask the Pavillon des Sessions consists partly of wood covered with kaolin and measure about 70 cm high. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;It dates from the late nineteenth century or early twentieth. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Listed under the inventory number 65-104-1, it comes from the former collection of Andr&amp;eacute; Lef&amp;egrave;vre and was acquired in 1965 by the Museum of Man.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;DESCRIPTION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This great helmet mask represents a stylized human face, whose face and elongated heart-shaped and slightly concave is shared by a long thin nose. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;On the top of the forehead develops a studded headband for attaching ornaments and who bears a ridge with extension to the front leads by three strokes for joining the nasal bridge and deployed above the eyebrows. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The C-shaped ears stand out in high relief on both sides of the face, as the eyes and mouth, they are barely mentioned by simple incisions highlighted by thin slits etched tattoos that recall that &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;arborist and the Fang Ntoumou Mvai by G&amp;uuml;nter Tessmann.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;ANALYSIS&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The mask of Ngil (NGI) exists only among the Fang, the people established the Sanaga River (southern Cameroon) Ogoou&amp;eacute; River (northern Gabon) and in Equatorial Guinea after a period of migration to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;stopped by the colonial authorities. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The Reverend Father Henri Trilles, during his journey across the country between 1899 and 1901 Fang for missions of evangelization, said that the Ngil was mainly known as people Betsi. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This mask belongs to an association of the same name whose primary purpose was to regulate the social order in discovering the perpetrators of deeds and punishing them, sometimes even killing them. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The Ngil was concerned only severe cases for which he was called, everyday problems are usually resolved by the Ntole, family man. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This association police and terrorized people acts a lot until it was banned by the colonial administration in 1910. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Note however that the masks have been Ngil still used for almost a decade after the ban in the most unspoiled areas of Equatorial Guinea and the Ntem valley.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Within the association exclusively male, there were several grades, specifically appointed by Louis Perrois, ethnologist among others remained 10 years, from 1965 to 1975 in Gabon for an executive position at the Museum of Arts and Traditions of Libreville.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- First, the leader of Ngil the mbege-feg, which was formed by a former insider and large surpassed many successful events for both physical and painful (the test of the table or that of wasps to do &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;make that list) that legal, especially at the time of his consecration as, under the Reverend Father Trilles, he must kill one of his close relatives. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;It is endowed with a certain power that is partly by the knowledge of plants and secret villages.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- The head of Ngil is surrounded in his action by his acolytes, nName-ngi who also suffered great hardship, beginning with a flogging, a confession of crimes and breaches of prohibitions, an ordeal ordeal (often by &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;fire or poison) and sacrifices. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This passage is both symbolic and actual took place in the ESAM, a secret enclosure outside the village, furnished with a hut in which was dug a large underground where they had spears and bones where the candidate was &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;slide. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In fact, the evidence was sufficient to estimate its determination and his courage was prevented from throwing it at the last moment. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;On the surface it fashioned large effigies of land vaguely human form, representing Ngil and his wife, photographed in 1913 by G&amp;uuml;nter Tessmann.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Finally, candidates for entry into the Ngil were mvon-ngi, which after a month of seclusion during which they provided to food called &amp;quot;exciting&amp;quot; were nominated or not able to undergo the first tests after the &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;interpretation of their communication with spirits in their dreams, this was a first physical and moral purification.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Thus, the group went from village to village, at the request and expense of the sponsor, the mod-ESAM. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Indeed, following an unexplained death or suspected of witchcraft, was called Ngil sometimes from afar, he sat in a hut near the village and terrorized the population by looking for the culprit. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In one of these stories and understanding the mournful cry that announces his arrival, Reverend Father Trilles appointed him as &amp;quot;the dreaded fetish women and many men, the fetish responsible to discover and punish the infidel women, &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;thieves and murderers. &amp;quot; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;However, later in the story, he describes the mbege-feg unmasked as (one of the acolytes who wears a mask) and, just like Tessmann, it fails to describe the masks he observes. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The latter speaks of Ngil as &amp;quot;the most significant and most friendly&amp;quot; forms of worship Pahouin territory. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In this regard, Philippe Laburthe-Tolra stresses that the meeting attended by Ngil Tessmann during his expedition between 1905 and 1909, was specially organized for him and strongly devoid of truth&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In fact, it has little specific information on these great masks and a few original copies of public and private collections are all but unique in their lifelike invoice. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;However, it is to relate certain aspects of the mask and the progress or the significance of the rite. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;For example, the whiteness of kaolin, with whom he was regularly repainted, evokes the power of the ancestors. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The death takes place in many practices Ngil who use human flesh to make the ordeal by poison, bone to hit during the initiation rites, or to garnish the ESAM and symbolize the &amp;quot;mother of Ngil&amp;quot; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Even if these bones are anonymous (from slaves, prisoners of war, dead nearby villages ...) or, in any case, be deemed as such. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The size of the mouth barely mentioned on the mask is also important: the leader of Ngil arose at dawn or dusk, screaming, behind by a young boy waving a bell, advising the population to hide. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This cry if pushed by the characteristic mbege-feg, the Reverend Father Trilles described as inhuman is certainly the result of intensive training and the swallowing of stinging plants but especially the fact that the mouth of the mask is extremely small and not &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;hollowed-as is the case for the mask-the Pavillon des Sessions to give deep resonances that scare people.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;It is difficult to talk about style mask for Ngil since none exist only very few specimens, all collected late nineteenth / early twentieth century. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;However, we can conduct a brief juxtaposition of different masks Ngil collections and also follow the description general enough in fact Perrois Louis.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;&amp;quot;All have essentially the same morphology: a face more or less drawn to the chin, or completely distorted and a huge forehead and rounded (forming a sort of helmet that could fit onto the head of the dancer), a nose always size &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;disproportionate, flanked by small close-set eyes, pierced, simply incised or carved out of almond and a tiny mouth and no lips, chin, sometimes with a full beard. The surface is whitened with kaolin (except that the mask of Leipzig) and sometimes &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;decorated with finely carved scarification on the cheeks and forehead. When the mask is wearing a headdress, it represents a sort of cap with peak longitudinal and headband. &amp;quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;All Ngil masks were not totally white: some showed bright colors obtained by soil ocher, red and black padouk pyrographed bitumen. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This is where the mask collected by Heise in 1899 in southern Cameroon, currently held in Leipzig, with volumes more solid curves differ copy of the Mus&amp;eacute;e du Quai Branly. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;By its small size (about forty centimeters high), it resembles that of the Barbier-Mueller (44cm high), magnified by the elegance of its design and scarred than the old collection Truth (48cm &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;high) on the chin particularly advanced to the end of a concave face and also having scars perfectly arranged. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;This has reached a record $ 5.9 million on the sale at Drouot in June 2006, the collection started by Peter Truth in 1920. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In a recent book, Louis Perrois will even state that &amp;quot;all great art collections&amp;quot; negro &amp;quot;and art&amp;quot; tribal &amp;quot;to the international level must, since the 1930s, have a great mask from the Fang Ngil &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Equatorial Africa. &amp;quot; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;He goes on to mention the impressive mask from the Berlin Museum, collected in 1895 by Oelert and present at the exhibition in New York in 1935, African Negro Art, whose dimensions exceed those of the Mus&amp;eacute;e du Quai Branly.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;CONCLUSION&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;In conclusion, we can quote the auction catalog of the collection Truth to confirm the importance of masks in Ngil an overview of art: &amp;quot;Fang of any art or primitive art in their entirety &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;masks Ngil are unquestionably among the rarest and most coveted.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Fang mask that belonged to Vlaminck and Derain to now in the Mus&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;Art Moderne in Paris was the emblem of a generation of artists and do not we say that Picasso painted his Les Demoiselles d &amp;#39; &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;Avignon under the influence of beauty and strength of a mask like this? &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The harmony of shapes of masks Ngil causes in western true admiration, we sometimes forget, behind this aesthetic close to perfection, its primary role of inquisitor terrifying people. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;The proof is that before there is further interest, the mask was unclear Ngil ... see you at the description of the catalog of the collection of Andr&amp;eacute; Lef&amp;egrave;vre in 1965!&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;BIBLIOGRAPHY&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Falgayrettes-Leveau, Christiane, 2006, Gabon, the presence of spirits, Mus&amp;eacute;e Dapper.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Philippe Laburthe-Tolra, 1985, initiations and secret societies in Cameroon: the mysteries of the night, Editions Karthala.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Philippe Laburthe-Tolra and Falgayrettes-Leveau Christiane, 1997, Fang: exposure 1991/avril November 1992, Paris: Editions Dapper.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Perrois Louis (for the preface), Gabon Fernand Gebert: 1913-1932&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Perrois Louis, 1985, the ancient art of Gabon in the collections of the Barbier-Mueller Museum, Editions Nathan.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Perrois Louis, 2006, Fang, editions of the Five Continents.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span style=&quot;&quot; title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Raponda-WALKER Andrew and Roger Sillans, 1962, Rites and beliefs of peoples of Gabon: an essay on the religious practices of the past and present, Paris / Dakar.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- G&amp;uuml;nter Tessmann, partial translation of Die Pangwe Fang in the book published by the Dapper museum in 1991.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- TRILLES Henry, 1912, the Fang or fifteen years of residence in the French Congo.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Collection Andre Lefevre, Paris-Drouot, December 1965.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;- Truth Collection, P&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;African Art / African Art / primitive art / primitive art / primitive arts / art gallery / art Tribal / Tribal Art / eye and hand / first art gallery / Agalom / Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre / www.african-paris.com / &lt;/span&gt;&lt;span title=&quot;&quot;&gt;www.agalom.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Sat, 20 Dec 2008 20:48:59 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Les Maîtres de Buli, Art Luba</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FLes%2BMa%25C3%25AEtres%2Bde%2BBuli-vi-%2BArt%2BLuba-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div&gt;	Pol P. Gossiaux&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Professeur d&amp;rsquo;Histoire et Ethno-s&amp;eacute;miologie&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	des arts africains &amp;agrave; l&amp;rsquo;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les Ma&amp;icirc;tres de Buli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Esth&amp;eacute;tique et Ethno-histoire &amp;nbsp;(avec deux in&amp;eacute;dits)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En 1937, le hasard d&amp;#39;une exposition1 mit en pr&amp;eacute;sence deux si&amp;egrave;ges &amp;agrave; cariatide &amp;laquo; royaux &amp;raquo;2 d&amp;#39;origine Luba (Za&amp;iuml;re) qui offraient entre eux de frappantes similitudes, tout en pr&amp;eacute;sentant d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;troites analogies avec la c&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;bre porteuse de coupe agenouill&amp;eacute;e, conserv&amp;eacute;e au Mus&amp;eacute;e de Tervuren3. Tout en entrant incontestablement dans l&amp;#39;orbe de la grande statuaire des Baluba (plus pr&amp;eacute;cis&amp;eacute;ment du groupe des Bahemba-Bakunda), ces &amp;oelig;uvres s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cartaient &amp;agrave; tel point des canons esth&amp;eacute;tiques fondamentaux de ce peuple que l&amp;#39;organisateur de l&amp;#39;exposition, Fr. M. Olbrechts, acquit la conviction qu&amp;#39;elles &amp;eacute;taient de la main d&amp;#39;un artiste unique dont le g&amp;eacute;nie, profond&amp;eacute;ment original, n&amp;#39;avait su se plier aux normes esth&amp;eacute;tiques impos&amp;eacute;es par la Tradition. &amp;laquo; Pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois, note M. Leiris, l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;individualit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;un sculpteur africain (&amp;eacute;tait) mise en avant &amp;raquo;4.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La porteuse de coupe de Tervuren, longtemps surnomm&amp;eacute;e &amp;laquo; Kabila la mendiante &amp;raquo;5, avait par son originalit&amp;eacute; plastique et le profond myst&amp;egrave;re qu&amp;#39;elle semble receler intrigu&amp;eacute; de nombreux esth&amp;egrave;tes, des cubistes (C. Einstein) aux surr&amp;eacute;alistes (Ph. Soupault). Mais l&amp;#39;on attribuait volontiers ce chef-d&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;uvre au hasard d&amp;#39;un miracle unique. Ainsi notait Soupault : &amp;laquo; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;motion qu&amp;#39;elle suscite est provoqu&amp;eacute;e non par l&amp;#39;habilet&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;elle du sculpteur mais par l&amp;#39;ardeur involontaire qui s&amp;#39;y r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le &amp;raquo;6. La d&amp;eacute;couverte de deux si&amp;egrave;ges, dus &amp;agrave; la m&amp;ecirc;me main, t&amp;eacute;moignait au contraire d&amp;#39;une ma&amp;icirc;trise totale, volontaire, des mati&amp;egrave;res et des formes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois, pour reprendre l&amp;#39;expression de Leiris, un artiste n&amp;egrave;gre, reconnu comme tel, se trouvait plac&amp;eacute; au &amp;laquo; rang des plus grands sculpteurs de tous les temps &amp;raquo; (Denise Paulme7).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dans les ann&amp;eacute;es qui suivirent, neuf autres sculptures, relevant du m&amp;ecirc;me style, furent identifi&amp;eacute;es. Plusieurs portaient comme mention d&amp;#39;origine : &amp;laquo; Buli sur le Lualaba &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;on prit donc, &amp;agrave; la suite d&amp;#39;Olbrechts qui la d&amp;eacute;crivit en 1946 et 19518, l&amp;rsquo;habitude de d&amp;eacute;signer la production du Ma&amp;icirc;tre anonyme sous l&amp;#39;appellation de &amp;laquo; sous style &amp;agrave; face allong&amp;eacute;e de Buli &amp;raquo;. Sur les douze &amp;oelig;uvres r&amp;eacute;pertori&amp;eacute;es alors, huit &amp;eacute;taient des si&amp;egrave;ges dits &amp;laquo; royaux &amp;raquo; : personne, apparemment, n&amp;#39;a relev&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque cette anomalie.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En 1960, la d&amp;eacute;couverte d&amp;#39;un appui-t&amp;ecirc;te (musamo) d&amp;ucirc; au Ma&amp;icirc;tre, par J.W. Mestach, permit &amp;agrave; cet excellent connaisseur de l&amp;#39;art n&amp;egrave;gre de donner une synth&amp;egrave;se des hypoth&amp;egrave;ses &amp;eacute;labor&amp;eacute;es sur ce &amp;laquo; sous style &amp;raquo; et d&amp;#39;ouvrir de nouvelles pistes de recherche9.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Depuis cette date, une quinzaine de pi&amp;egrave;ces au moins sont venues enrichir la nomenclature des &amp;oelig;uvres connues du Ma&amp;icirc;tre.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Certaines proviennent de fonds anciens. Mentionnons, outre deux si&amp;egrave;ges &amp;agrave; cariatide agenouill&amp;eacute;e, de teinte ocre-jaune, la porteuse de coupe assise recueillie par Fr. Miot, lors de la quatri&amp;egrave;me campagne anti-esclavagiste (1895)10, et le petit anc&amp;ecirc;tre de la collection Cambier, r&amp;eacute;colt&amp;eacute; avant 190911. A cette cat&amp;eacute;gorie appartient &amp;eacute;galement la petite t&amp;ecirc;te (fig. 1) que nous pr&amp;eacute;sentons ici pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois et qui fut d&amp;eacute;couverte, selon une tradition familiale, peu apr&amp;egrave;s la premi&amp;egrave;re guerre mondiale par un agent territorial de Kongolo. La base en est d&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;rior&amp;eacute;e, mais l&amp;#39;on peut conjecturer que la t&amp;ecirc;te devait se prolonger par un socle cylindrique &amp;eacute;vid&amp;eacute;. La t&amp;ecirc;te, creus&amp;eacute;e, rec&amp;egrave;le toujours en effet une importante charge magique, fix&amp;eacute;e avec de la r&amp;eacute;sine, qui a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; introduite par le fond. La radioscopie de l&amp;#39;objet12 r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le parmi les &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments identifiables qui entrent dans la composition de la charge magique, la pr&amp;eacute;sence d&amp;#39;une griffe, d&amp;#39;une canine de singe (tr&amp;egrave;s probablement d&amp;#39;un jeune gorille) et enfin d&amp;#39;un fragment min&amp;eacute;ral, sans doute de cristal de quartz. Ce dernier &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ment autorise les hypoth&amp;egrave;ses les plus s&amp;eacute;rieuses quant &amp;agrave; la destination de l&amp;#39;objet. Le cristal de quartz (ngulu), dont la translucidit&amp;eacute; favoriserait la voyance, est l&amp;#39;un des accessoires magiques les plus ordinaires des devins bilumbu (sur lesquels l&amp;#39;on reviendra). L&amp;#39;on sait, par ailleurs, que dans tout le nord-est du Buluba, le g&amp;eacute;nie de la devination est repr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute; par une petite figurine nomm&amp;eacute;e Kabwelulu (&amp;laquo; pierre de l&amp;#39;esprit &amp;raquo;) ou encore Mwandjalulu, dont le corps n&amp;#39;est le plus souvent constitu&amp;eacute;, en effet, que d&amp;#39;un corps cylindrique parfois &amp;eacute;vas&amp;eacute;, ou tronconique13. Le rapprochement avec Kabwelulu rendrait compte de la pr&amp;eacute;sence de la dent de gorille (kihemba : &amp;laquo; so ya mwema &amp;raquo;) dans la t&amp;ecirc;te. Ce primate, disparu de la r&amp;eacute;gion, mais dont de nombreuses l&amp;eacute;gendes gardent la m&amp;eacute;moire, passait pour d&amp;eacute;tenir des dons de voyance &amp;eacute;minents : on lui attribuait un troisi&amp;egrave;me &amp;oelig;il, situ&amp;eacute; derri&amp;egrave;re la t&amp;ecirc;te, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur du cr&amp;acirc;ne. La dent favoriserait ainsi le processus de la devination.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 500px; height: 577px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 1. T&amp;ecirc;te d&amp;#39;une statuette, sans doute Kabwelulu,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Buli in&amp;eacute;dit, bois, charge magique, h. 8, 1 cm.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photo de l&amp;rsquo;auteur.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	D&amp;#39;autres &amp;oelig;uvres ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; retrouv&amp;eacute;es, depuis une vingtaine d&amp;#39;ann&amp;eacute;es, sur le terrain. Ainsi en est-il de la figurine d&amp;#39;un anc&amp;ecirc;tre, peut-&amp;ecirc;tre un Prince de Buli, que nous avons d&amp;eacute;couverte en 1971 (cfr. fig. 2) et de l&amp;#39;effigie du guerrier Kalala Luhumbo, &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;e en 1977 par le P. Neyt15. Cette pi&amp;egrave;ce avait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; rep&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; Sola, pr&amp;egrave;s de Kongolo, d&amp;egrave;s 1970.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli1.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 500px; height: 800px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 2a&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Figure d&amp;rsquo;un prince de Buli. Bois d&amp;eacute;patin&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ceinture en peau d&amp;rsquo;antilope. Ht. 299 mm. Photo de l&amp;rsquo;auteur.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli2.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 500px; height: 722px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 2b&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Plusieurs &amp;oelig;uvres sont toujours conserv&amp;eacute;es sur place. Les t&amp;eacute;moignages, formels, mentionnent entre autres, un couple d&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre (mikisi), un masque-singe du type imbombo ya &amp;#39;so que nous avons &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute; en 197316 et un couple porteur de coupe (mboko) remplie de kaolin. De m&amp;ecirc;me, le tr&amp;egrave;s beau si&amp;egrave;ge (kihona) &amp;agrave; cariatide debout que nous pr&amp;eacute;sentons ici pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois (fig. 3), &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute; sur le terrain en 1985, nous avait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;eacute;crit d&amp;egrave;s 1969.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli3.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 550px; height: 856px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 3. Si&amp;egrave;ge aulique de Buli, bois, 52 cm,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	coll. priv&amp;eacute;e. Photo J.P. Parduyns.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;impressionnante figure sculpt&amp;eacute;e ici repr&amp;eacute;senterait Kamania, portant dans ses flancs les germes de sa descendance, soit le peuple des Bakunda. Peuple apparent&amp;eacute; aux actuels Bab&amp;ugrave;y&amp;ugrave; qui formait le fonds de la population de Buli. Le dernier propri&amp;eacute;taire de ce kihona le consid&amp;eacute;rait comme l&amp;#39;embl&amp;egrave;me de l&amp;#39;ancienne all&amp;eacute;geance de sa famille au bulohwe (pouvoir li&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la d&amp;eacute;tention du sang imp&amp;eacute;rial sacr&amp;eacute;, transmis par les femmes). Des souvenirs pr&amp;eacute;cis rattachent sa cr&amp;eacute;ation &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque des conqu&amp;ecirc;tes op&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es par Buki dans le nord de Buli (cfr infra). La patine rituelle, compos&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;enduits de farine, de lie, d&amp;#39;huile et de graisses animales, comporterait &amp;eacute;galement des p&amp;acirc;tes de graines de lubenga (sorte de roucou), en hommage &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre imp&amp;eacute;rial Mbidyi Kiluwe17. Les bras en &amp;eacute;taient couverts de bracelets de perles et la poitrine et le haut du ventre des ceintures lubuka et kifuka, r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;es aux femmes enceintes18. Le fait explique que ces endroits aient pu subir, de l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur, les atteintes des insectes phytophages (termites), qui abhorrent la lumi&amp;egrave;re.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stylistiquement, cette &amp;oelig;uvre offre quelques traits singuliers en regard des cr&amp;eacute;ations les mieux connues du Ma&amp;icirc;tre. Moins baroque, elle s&amp;#39;enferme dans un hi&amp;eacute;ratisme accentu&amp;eacute; qui renforce paradoxalement son surprenant dynamisme. Observant un &amp;eacute;quilibre beaucoup plus strict entre les proportions de la t&amp;ecirc;te, du corps et des membres, elle se refuse &amp;agrave; toute anecdote (notamment dans le traitement de la coiffe19, des oreilles, des mains) ; et l&amp;#39;on serait tent&amp;eacute; de dire que, tout en relevant incontestablement de la tradition de Buli, elle conserve plus &amp;eacute;troitement l&amp;#39;empreinte de l&amp;#39;esth&amp;eacute;tique classique hemba-kunda, qu&amp;#39;inspire le souci d&amp;rsquo;un d&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;alisme &amp;eacute;pur&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les enqu&amp;ecirc;tes men&amp;eacute;es lors de la d&amp;eacute;couverte de ces &amp;oelig;uvres autorisent des r&amp;eacute;ponses nouvelles aux &amp;eacute;nigmes, nombreuses, que pose l&amp;#39;art de Buli. L&amp;#39;une de celles-ci touche &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;unit&amp;eacute; m&amp;ecirc;me de l&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;uvre ou encore &amp;agrave; la pluralit&amp;eacute; possible de sculpteurs.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	D&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave;, dans l&amp;#39;ensemble isol&amp;eacute; par Olbrechts, certains historiens avaient cru pouvoir distinguer au moins deux groupes d&amp;#39;oeuvres : le premier, dont la Porteuse de coupe de Tervuren ou le Si&amp;egrave;ge de Londres demeurent les paradigmes, comprend des sculptures, g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement de teinte noire, portant des traces d&amp;#39;utilisation et dont les figures &amp;eacute;maci&amp;eacute;es semblent refl&amp;eacute;ter l&amp;#39;intensit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;une aust&amp;egrave;re m&amp;eacute;ditation. La t&amp;ecirc;te pr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute;e dans cet article illustre bien l&amp;#39;esth&amp;eacute;tique de ce premier groupe. L&amp;#39;autre est form&amp;eacute; de pi&amp;egrave;ces (principalement des si&amp;egrave;ges) d&amp;#39;aspect plus r&amp;eacute;cent, de teinte plus claire (ocre/jaune, avec des rehauts noirs), dont les figures arrondies, un peu emp&amp;acirc;t&amp;eacute;es, et o&amp;ugrave; s&amp;#39;affirme un r&amp;eacute;alisme accru, se r&amp;eacute;pondent comme des paradigmes st&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;otyp&amp;eacute;s, dont l&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me semble s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;puiser. De ces derni&amp;egrave;res &amp;oelig;uvres &amp;eacute;mane le sentiment confus d&amp;#39;un d&amp;eacute;clin &amp;mdash; comme l&amp;#39;avait not&amp;eacute; W. Mestach20. Ces historiens n&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;sitaient donc pas &amp;agrave; conclure qu&amp;#39;il y avait eu plusieurs &amp;laquo; Ma&amp;icirc;tres &amp;raquo; de Buli. Olbrechts lui-m&amp;ecirc;me, sans trop y croire, avait avanc&amp;eacute; l&amp;#39;hypoth&amp;egrave;se d&amp;#39;un &amp;laquo; atelier &amp;raquo; install&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; Buli. W. Fagg, beaucoup plus cat&amp;eacute;gorique, opposant &amp;laquo; la profondeur de sentiment &amp;raquo; du &amp;laquo; premier &amp;raquo; Ma&amp;icirc;tre &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;humour &amp;laquo; somewath pawky Disneyesque &amp;raquo; de son &amp;laquo; pupil &amp;raquo;, concluait qu&amp;#39;il y avait eu deux, voire trois &amp;laquo; Ma&amp;icirc;tres &amp;raquo; qui avaient &amp;oelig;uvr&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; Buli21.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nous nous sommes oppos&amp;eacute; autrefois &amp;agrave; la th&amp;egrave;se de Fagg. L&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;e d&amp;#39;un &amp;laquo; atelier &amp;raquo; de sculpture r&amp;eacute;pugne aux donn&amp;eacute;es de l&amp;#39;ethnographie luba. Colle, sur ce point, est formel22, et nos informateurs confirment son t&amp;eacute;moignage : l&amp;#39;art de la sculpture passait, chez les Baluba, pour une sorte de monopole qui ne se transmettait gu&amp;egrave;re qu&amp;#39;au sein d&amp;#39;une m&amp;ecirc;me famille. Nous pensions pouvoir fonder notre argumentation sur la pr&amp;eacute;sence, d&amp;#39;un groupe &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autre, de traits similaires que nous croyions inconscients (donc inimitables) et que nous attribuions &amp;agrave; un lapsus cultri23. Selon nous, les diff&amp;eacute;rences, &amp;eacute;videntes, observ&amp;eacute;es entre les &amp;oelig;uvres &amp;laquo; du &amp;raquo; Ma&amp;icirc;tre, devaient s&amp;#39;expliquer par une &amp;eacute;volution toute personnelle qui avait fini par se figer, il est vrai, dans la production de st&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;otypes sans grande inspiration.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Un examen plus attentif des canons proportionnels auxquels ob&amp;eacute;issent les &amp;oelig;uvres de Buli, plusieurs retours sur le terrain (1977, 1983-1990), des t&amp;eacute;moignages inexploit&amp;eacute;s, nous contraignent aujourd&amp;#39;hui &amp;agrave; adopter une hypoth&amp;egrave;se &amp;eacute;largie : nous croyons toujours &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;volution de l&amp;#39;art de Buli, mais nous pensons que celle-ci s&amp;#39;est produite sur plusieurs g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rations, vraisemblablement au sein d&amp;#39;une m&amp;ecirc;me famille. Notre d&amp;eacute;monstration s&amp;#39;appuiera essentiellement sur les donn&amp;eacute;es chronologiques que nous livre le recoupement de l&amp;#39;ensemble des sources disponibles.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chronologie des &amp;oelig;uvres de Buli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Une rumeur qui circulait autrefois dans certains milieux coloniaux, voulait que quelques-uns, au moins, des si&amp;egrave;ges de Buli avaient &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; sculpt&amp;eacute;s pour des Europ&amp;eacute;ens. Il n&amp;#39;y aurait gu&amp;egrave;re lieu de pr&amp;ecirc;ter attention &amp;agrave; ces bruits si deux t&amp;eacute;moignages, produits ici pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois, ne venaient leur donner une certaine autorit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le premier &amp;eacute;mane des entretiens que nous avons eus avec Mme Vve Gu&amp;eacute;bels, &amp;agrave; propos d&amp;#39;une miniature en ivoire de &amp;laquo; Kabila la mendiante &amp;raquo; (la Porteuse de coupe de Tervuren), qui se trouvait dans ses collections. Selon ce t&amp;eacute;moignage, L&amp;eacute;on Gu&amp;eacute;bels (plus connu sous le nom d&amp;#39;Olivier de Bouveignes) s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait int&amp;eacute;ress&amp;eacute; tr&amp;egrave;s t&amp;ocirc;t &amp;agrave; ce qu&amp;#39;il appelait le &amp;laquo; style Kabila &amp;raquo;. Il avait failli, disait-il, en conna&amp;icirc;tre l&amp;#39;inventeur lorsque, jeune magistrat, il &amp;eacute;tait pass&amp;eacute; par le village de ce dernier pour y apprendre qu&amp;#39;il &amp;eacute;tait mort r&amp;eacute;cemment. C&amp;#39;est en 1913 que L. Gu&amp;eacute;bels rejoignit pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois Elisabethville, d&amp;#39;o&amp;ugrave; il fut d&amp;eacute;tach&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; Kabinda pour y exercer les fonctions de substitut du procureur du roi. Une carte manuscrite, d&amp;eacute;taill&amp;eacute;e, dat&amp;eacute;e de 1916, que nous avons retrouv&amp;eacute;e dans ses archives, r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le qu&amp;#39;il entreprit &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque un p&amp;eacute;riple qui de Katompe le mena notamment &amp;agrave; Kabalo (&amp;agrave; trois kilom&amp;egrave;tres du poste de Buli). L&amp;#39;on peut croire que c&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;occasion de ce voyage qu&amp;#39;il d&amp;eacute;couvrit l&amp;#39;oeuvre du Ma&amp;icirc;tre qui dut l&amp;#39;intriguer et qu&amp;#39;il apprit alors que celui-ci &amp;eacute;tait mort &amp;laquo; r&amp;eacute;cemment &amp;raquo;24.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le second t&amp;eacute;moignage est plus troublant encore, car il &amp;eacute;mane d&amp;#39;Hubert Bure25, &amp;agrave; qui l&amp;#39;on doit la d&amp;eacute;couverte de la sculpture la plus c&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;bre de Buli, Kabila la mendiante, dont il vient d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre question &amp;mdash; qu&amp;#39;il recueillit des mains du chef Kanunu, l&amp;#39;un des vassaux du Prince de Buli. Rappelons ici que le Li&amp;eacute;geois H. Bure avait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; charg&amp;eacute; par le Comit&amp;eacute; Sp&amp;eacute;cial du Katanga de r&amp;eacute;aliser une route carrossable entre Tshofa et Buli, ce qui l&amp;#39;occupa de 1905 &amp;agrave; 1907. C&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; cette derni&amp;egrave;re date qu&amp;#39;il r&amp;eacute;sida &amp;agrave; Buli. Or, avant de c&amp;eacute;der en 1913, sa collection au baron A. de Haulleville, directeur de Tervuren, Bure avait offert quelques-uns de ses objets &amp;agrave; certains de ses amis li&amp;eacute;geois, et notamment au Dr Charles Firket26, professeur de pathologie tropicale &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge et collectionneur passionn&amp;eacute; de tout ce qui provenait de l&amp;#39;Afrique centrale. Ch. Firket tenait avec soin le registre des pi&amp;egrave;ces qu&amp;#39;il accumulait. Il y indiquait notamment, &amp;agrave; c&amp;ocirc;t&amp;eacute; de la mention de chaque objet, son origine ethnique et g&amp;eacute;ographique ainsi que l&amp;#39;auteur et la date de la r&amp;eacute;colte. La collection et le catalogue ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; l&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge par les h&amp;eacute;ritiers de Ch. Firket (d&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute; en 1928). Or, on peut lire, p. 29v&amp;deg;-30r&amp;deg; du manuscrit cette mention : (Objet :) &amp;laquo; Petit tabouret sculpt&amp;eacute; (2 figurines adoss&amp;eacute;es) &amp;raquo;. (R&amp;eacute;gion :) &amp;laquo; &amp;agrave; Buli (Haut-Lualaba) &amp;raquo;, (recueilli par :) &amp;laquo; Mr Hubert Bure. 1907 &amp;raquo;, avec cette notation inattendue, sous la d&amp;eacute;signation de l&amp;#39;objet : &amp;laquo; Fait pour la vente aux blancs &amp;raquo; (fig. 4).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli4.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1000px; height: 287px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 4. Catalogue des collections de Charles Firket, extrait des pages 29v&amp;deg; et 30r&amp;deg;,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Biblioth&amp;egrave;que de l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge, mss. 2823b.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La pr&amp;eacute;cision est d&amp;#39;autant plus surprenante qu&amp;#39;elle est la seule du genre qui apparaisse dans les quelque 300 notices du catalogue. Pourtant la collection Firket rec&amp;egrave;le d&amp;#39;autres pi&amp;egrave;ces &amp;laquo; faites pour les Blancs &amp;raquo;, sur des mod&amp;egrave;les traditionnels, il est vrai27. C&amp;#39;est donc que le &amp;laquo; petit tabouret &amp;raquo; offrait un aspect tellement inhabituel que Ch. Firket crut utile d&amp;#39;ajouter le renseignement qu&amp;#39;il tenait &amp;eacute;videmment de Bure.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le &amp;laquo; petit tabouret &amp;raquo; ne se trouve plus dans les collections de l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge (ni, h&amp;eacute;las, cette &amp;laquo; amulette sculpt&amp;eacute;e dans une dent de phacoch&amp;egrave;re &amp;raquo; &amp;eacute;galement recueillie par Bure &amp;agrave; Buli), et m&amp;ecirc;me si l&amp;#39;on sait que le Ma&amp;icirc;tre a laiss&amp;eacute; des si&amp;egrave;ges &amp;agrave; cariatides adoss&amp;eacute;es, rien ne permet d&amp;#39;affirmer que cet objet &amp;eacute;tait de sa cr&amp;eacute;ation, car il n&amp;#39;est pas douteux que d&amp;#39;autres artistes &amp;oelig;uvr&amp;egrave;rent dans la m&amp;ecirc;me chefferie. Mais r&amp;eacute;p&amp;eacute;tons-le, ce t&amp;eacute;moignage, conjugu&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; celui de Mme Gu&amp;eacute;bels, interdit de traiter par le d&amp;eacute;dain seul la rumeur &amp;eacute;voqu&amp;eacute;e plus haut.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il faut avouer que si celle-ci pouvait &amp;ecirc;tre d&amp;eacute;finitivement confirm&amp;eacute;e &amp;ndash;soit que le ma&amp;icirc;tre ou l&amp;rsquo;un de ses successeurs ait travaill&amp;eacute; pour des amateurs europ&amp;eacute;ens- plusieurs des questions que pose l&amp;#39;art de Buli trouveraient leur solution logique. Ainsi expliquerait-on le nombre, anormalement &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute;, de &amp;laquo; si&amp;egrave;ges de chef &amp;raquo; dans la production du Ma&amp;icirc;tre ; et l&amp;#39;on comprendrait pourquoi certains d&amp;#39;entre eux ne portent ni signe convaincant d&amp;#39;utilisation ni trace de ces enduits rituels qu&amp;#39;exigeait la tradition du culte r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute; aux si&amp;egrave;ges sacr&amp;eacute;s.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Quoiqu&amp;#39;il en soit, il est &amp;eacute;tabli que :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Buli, en 1907, soit quinze ans apr&amp;egrave;s avoir &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; en contact pour la premi&amp;egrave;re fois avec des Europ&amp;eacute;ens (exp&amp;eacute;dition Delcommune : 1892 (cfr infra)), &amp;eacute;tait d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; un centre o&amp;ugrave; des objets d&amp;#39;art &amp;eacute;taient confectionn&amp;eacute;s &amp;laquo; pour les Blancs &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;on ne peut s&amp;#39;emp&amp;ecirc;cher de songer ici &amp;agrave; une note un peu acide du Dr Briart, compagnon de Delcommune, qui, abordant Buli, rel&amp;egrave;ve : &amp;laquo; Habitants tr&amp;egrave;s curieux, avides et commer&amp;ccedil;ants &amp;raquo;28.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;La disparition du Ma&amp;icirc;tre est relativement r&amp;eacute;cente : peu avant 1913 (date de l&amp;#39;arriv&amp;eacute;e de Gu&amp;eacute;bels au Congo), et plus vraisemblablement 1916 (voyage &amp;agrave; Kabalo).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	N&amp;eacute;anmoins, l&amp;#39;on ne saurait soutenir que l&amp;#39;art de Buli ait &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; inspir&amp;eacute; par les Blancs, ni m&amp;ecirc;me marqu&amp;eacute; de mani&amp;egrave;re significative par leur pr&amp;eacute;sence. Un faisceau convergent d&amp;#39;arguments prouve au contraire que cet art a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;labor&amp;eacute; dans un contexte purement traditionnel pour y assumer les fonctions que la culture bantoue tout enti&amp;egrave;re assigne &amp;agrave; la statuaire magique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il suffira ici d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;num&amp;eacute;rer les principaux de ces arguments :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Un certain nombre d&amp;#39;objets ont &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;colt&amp;eacute;s par le plus grand des hasards. C&amp;#39;est le cas de la &amp;nbsp;Porteuse de coupe, re&amp;ccedil;ue par Miot (1895) en signe de reconnaissance, d&amp;#39;un chef qu&amp;#39;il avait sauv&amp;eacute; de la servitude, et du petit couple d&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tres d&amp;eacute;couvert par l&amp;#39;explorateur Fo&amp;agrave; (1897) lors de son incursion mouvement&amp;eacute;e dans la r&amp;eacute;gion (cfr infra). Ces objets, visiblement, &amp;eacute;taient destin&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; des fins cultuelles.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;La m&amp;ecirc;me observation vaut, &amp;eacute;videmment, pour les sculptures retrouv&amp;eacute;es sur le terrain depuis 1969. A fortiori pour celles qui sont encore in situ. L&amp;#39;enqu&amp;ecirc;te r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le du reste, que la statuaire de Buli inspire toujours sur place une r&amp;eacute;elle fascination. Il ne faut m&amp;ecirc;me pas exclure l&amp;rsquo;id&amp;eacute;e que, durant longtemps encore, des &amp;oelig;uvres, inspir&amp;eacute;es par le s style de Buli, aient &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; sculpt&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; des fins purement cultuelles. &amp;nbsp;Le pouvoir sacr&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;art semble relever ici autant de sa magie objective que de ses qualit&amp;eacute;s plastiques. C&amp;#39;est dire la s&amp;eacute;duction qu&amp;#39;il dut exercer, d&amp;egrave;s l&amp;#39;origine, sur le milieu o&amp;ugrave; il a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; con&amp;ccedil;u.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Si certaines sculptures n&amp;#39;ont gu&amp;egrave;re &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; utilis&amp;eacute;es, d&amp;#39;autres offrent, au contraire, des traces convaincantes d&amp;#39;anciennet&amp;eacute;. Ainsi en est-il de la Porteuse de coupe de Tervuren, du Si&amp;egrave;ge de Londres et g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralement de presque tous les objets de teinte noire qui &amp;eacute;taient sans doute anciens de plusieurs d&amp;eacute;cennies lorsqu&amp;#39;ils furent recueillis.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Les t&amp;eacute;moignages explicites, all&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;s jusqu&amp;#39;ici, tendent &amp;agrave; situer la production de Buli dans un pass&amp;eacute; relativement r&amp;eacute;cent. Mais d&amp;#39;autres, tout aussi convaincants, inspirent des conclusions enti&amp;egrave;rement oppos&amp;eacute;es. Ainsi, lorsque nous avons enqu&amp;ecirc;t&amp;eacute; sur le petit anc&amp;ecirc;tre que nous avons publi&amp;eacute; en 1975, la g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogie des propri&amp;eacute;taires successifs de cet objet fournie par nos informateurs nous incitait &amp;agrave; conclure que celui-ci ne pouvait, en aucun cas, avoir moins d&amp;#39;un si&amp;egrave;cle. Etudiant l&amp;#39;effigie de Kalala Luhumbo de Sola, le R.P. Neyt obtenait des renseignements du m&amp;ecirc;me ordre : l&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;uvre avait eu douze gardiens qui s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;taient succ&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;s sur quatre g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rations, soit &amp;mdash; selon le P. Neyt &amp;mdash; un si&amp;egrave;cle et demi29.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Le si&amp;egrave;ge &amp;agrave; cariatide debout, d&amp;eacute;crit dans cet article, daterait de la m&amp;ecirc;me &amp;eacute;poque et serait m&amp;ecirc;me plus ancien, puisque la tradition en fait remonter l&amp;#39;histoire aux guerres de Buki. C&amp;#39;est peu apr&amp;egrave;s 1800 qu&amp;#39; llunga Buki, fils de Kumwimba Ngombe, Xe empereur des Baluba, entreprit de se tailler un empire personnel dans les territoires du nord, occup&amp;eacute;s par des clans Yambula, Kusu et Zula. Certains membres de la famille de Buli, dont l&amp;#39;apanage se trouvait menac&amp;eacute; par ces campagnes, mirent leurs armes au service du prince imp&amp;eacute;rial, qui en retour, leur conf&amp;eacute;ra le bulohwe (pouvoir sacr&amp;eacute;) sur quelques-uns des postes conquis (sud de Kongolo) et les insignes attach&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; cette dignit&amp;eacute;, dont le si&amp;egrave;ge sacr&amp;eacute; kihona.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- &amp;nbsp;Enfin, la pr&amp;eacute;sence de la dent de gorille parmi les charmes magiques de la t&amp;ecirc;te Kabwelulu d&amp;eacute;crite plus haut, pourrait offrir un &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ment de datation objectif, quoique malheureusement impr&amp;eacute;cis. La disparition du gorille du nord du Buluba, provoqu&amp;eacute;e sans doute par le lent recul de la for&amp;ecirc;t, dut s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tendre sur plusieurs si&amp;egrave;cles. Toutefois l&amp;#39;extinction d&amp;eacute;finitive de l&amp;#39;esp&amp;egrave;ce, dans la r&amp;eacute;gion, serait relativement r&amp;eacute;cente, si l&amp;#39;on en croit les l&amp;eacute;gendes qui &amp;eacute;tablissent un lien direct entre celle-ci et l&amp;#39;apparition des Arabes dans ces contr&amp;eacute;es : le singe aurait fui, dit le mythe, pour &amp;eacute;chapper &amp;agrave; la servitude30. Si les Arabes commencent &amp;agrave; fr&amp;eacute;quenter la rive ouest du lac Tanganyika vers 1840, ce n&amp;#39;est que dix ou quinze ans plus tard que leur pr&amp;eacute;sence se fit r&amp;eacute;ellement sentir aux confins du Buluba. Ces dates constitueraientnt le terminus ad quem logique de la t&amp;ecirc;te de notre Kabwelulu. (L&amp;rsquo;on ne peut, cependant, exclure que les dents de gorille aient pu faire l&amp;rsquo;objet de transactions commerciales. Le gorille &amp;lsquo;eng&amp;ugrave;ti est toujours pr&amp;eacute;sents dans les monts Itumbwe du Sud-Kivu ).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;ensemble de ces t&amp;eacute;moignages, ou indices, tend &amp;agrave; d&amp;eacute;montrer que la production de Buli s&amp;#39;est &amp;eacute;tendue sur un si&amp;egrave;cle et davantage. Il faut donc conclure, comme nous l&amp;#39;avons sugg&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;, que celle-ci est le fait de plusieurs sculpteurs qui se sont succ&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;s de c.1810 &amp;agrave; c.1915 sur deux ou trois g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rations, vraisemblablement au sein d&amp;#39;une m&amp;ecirc;me famille. Cette th&amp;egrave;se est la seule qui puisse rendre compte de l&amp;#39;unit&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;vidente de la tradition plastique de Buli et de l&amp;#39;existence au sein de celle-ci de plusieurs &amp;laquo; sous-styles &amp;raquo; illustr&amp;eacute;s par des groupes de sculptures diff&amp;eacute;rents qui semblent bien constituer les jalons d&amp;#39;une &amp;eacute;volution interne.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il serait tentant, d&amp;egrave;s lors, de chercher sans plus attendre les crit&amp;egrave;res autorisant la d&amp;eacute;finition de chacun de ces sous-styles et d&amp;#39;en restituer ainsi la g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogie. Mais une telle tentative suppose l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude pr&amp;eacute;alable, que l&amp;#39;on devine longue et complexe, de toutes les &amp;oelig;uvres relevant de la tradition plastique de Buli. De surcro&amp;icirc;t, elle ne serait r&amp;eacute;ellement convaincante que si elle se trouvait fond&amp;eacute;e sur un principe taxonomique plus global, inspir&amp;eacute; par une compr&amp;eacute;hension en profondeur de l&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;uvre, qui en &amp;eacute;clairerait la gen&amp;egrave;se et l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;volution.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	C&amp;#39;est &amp;agrave; la recherche de ce principe que seront consacr&amp;eacute;es les pages qui suivent.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Histoire politique de la principaut&amp;eacute; de Buli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les questions, complexes en soi, li&amp;eacute;es &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tiologie de tout style, se livrent dans le cas de Buli comme une v&amp;eacute;ritable &amp;eacute;nigme. Cet art semble en effet dict&amp;eacute; par la volont&amp;eacute; consciente de renouveler la tradition plastique (celle des Baluba-kunda) dont il tire visiblement son inspiration originelle &amp;mdash; voire de s&amp;#39;en &amp;eacute;carter. Or, s&amp;#39;il est vrai que l&amp;#39;artiste noir disposait d&amp;#39;une certaine libert&amp;eacute;, il se devait de respecter les paradigmes impos&amp;eacute;s par la Tradition, dont l&amp;#39;ensemble &amp;eacute;tait per&amp;ccedil;u par la communaut&amp;eacute; comme un v&amp;eacute;ritable langage, et au-del&amp;agrave;, comme l&amp;#39;un des fondements de sa propre identit&amp;eacute;. L&amp;#39;isomorphie entre les paradigmes l&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;s par le pass&amp;eacute; et les cr&amp;eacute;ations nouvelles conf&amp;eacute;rait &amp;agrave; celles-ci leur l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; et leur efficacit&amp;eacute;. C&amp;#39;est dire que les m&amp;eacute;tamorphoses de Buli ne sauraient r&amp;eacute;sulter de la volont&amp;eacute; seule d&amp;#39;un cr&amp;eacute;ateur isol&amp;eacute; : elle r&amp;eacute;pondent &amp;agrave; une attente collective, consciente ou non.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La gen&amp;egrave;se du style de Buli appartient donc &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;histoire d&amp;#39;une collectivit&amp;eacute;. Cette conclusion s&amp;#39;imposera avec plus d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;vidence encore si l&amp;#39;on se souvient que chez les Baluba, les sculpteurs professionnels (basonga, batombe), et sp&amp;eacute;cialement ceux qui travaillaient pour la Cour, se trouvaient directement associ&amp;eacute;s au Pouvoir. La statuaire rituelle, dans ses multiples fonctions (assurer la pr&amp;eacute;sence des Esprits et des Anc&amp;ecirc;tres, contr&amp;ocirc;ler les sources de la vie et de la mort, fournir au Pouvoir &amp;mdash; celui qu&amp;#39;exer&amp;ccedil;ait le Prince mais aussi les Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s initiatiques &amp;mdash; les instruments magiques de la l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; et de sa survie, etc.), ne pouvait qu&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre initi&amp;eacute;e aux myst&amp;egrave;res qui pr&amp;eacute;sidaient &amp;agrave; la vie culturelle, socio-politique et religieuse de l&amp;#39;Etat. C&amp;#39;est pourquoi les sculpteurs faisaient partie de jure du conseil priv&amp;eacute; du Prince. Or, et l&amp;#39;on n&amp;#39;a pas suffisamment soulign&amp;eacute; le fait, la plupart des productions de Buli ont un caract&amp;egrave;re politico-religieux nettement marqu&amp;eacute;. Si&amp;egrave;ges, porteuses de coupe, effigies d&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tres, etc. sont clairement destin&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; la vie rituelle de la Cour. L&amp;#39;on reviendra sur ce point.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	C&amp;#39;est pour avoir trop peu pr&amp;ecirc;t&amp;eacute; attention &amp;agrave; ces faits, pour avoir ignor&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;galement que Buli n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait pas un simple village mais un v&amp;eacute;ritable Etat, que les &amp;mdash; rares &amp;mdash; historiens qui se sont interrog&amp;eacute;s sur les circonstances de la naissance de l&amp;#39;art de Buli n&amp;#39;ont pu &amp;eacute;mettre sur ce point que des consid&amp;eacute;rations bien fr&amp;ecirc;les31.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli5.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1100px; height: 428px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 5. Position g&amp;eacute;ographique de la Seigneurie de Buli. Extrait de A.-J. WAUTERS,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Carte de L&amp;#39;Urua au 2.000.000e., dans Mouvement g&amp;eacute;ographique, 21 mars 1897.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La Basse-Lukuga, avant de se d&amp;eacute;verser dans le Lualaba o&amp;ugrave; elle dra&amp;icirc;ne d&amp;#39;immenses champs de papyrus, traverse une vaste plaine, l&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;rement vallonn&amp;eacute;e, born&amp;eacute;e sur le flanc est par les contreforts montagneux couverts de for&amp;ecirc;ts, et au sud par les Monts Suya (fig. 5). Ce sont ces terres qu&amp;#39;envahissent vers 1750, sous la conduite de Mbuli Mukulu, des populations d&amp;#39;origine kunda (du vaste clan des Kamania) apparent&amp;eacute;es aux actuels Babuyu du Maniema. Mbuli Mukulu y fonde un royaume dont le socle est constitu&amp;eacute; par le territoire, en forme de triangle aigu, que d&amp;eacute;limitent les deux fleuves &amp;agrave; leur confluent. De l&amp;agrave;, Mbuli envoya ses guerriers conqu&amp;eacute;rir quelques avant-postes, au nord, dans la r&amp;eacute;gion de Kansimba (Kongolo), et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ouest, dans les petites chefferies sises au-del&amp;agrave; du Lualaba. Pour renforcer la l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; de son appropriation, il cr&amp;eacute;era ou favorisera, comme on le verra, la restructuration de sectes secr&amp;egrave;tes qui lui assureront la protection des Morts et des Esprits de la contr&amp;eacute;e, toujours redoutables. Son fils et successeur, Mbuli Kisala, &amp;eacute;tend les limites de la chefferie au sud, en s&amp;#39;emparant de quelques villages du chef Kasinga. Celui-ci &amp;eacute;tait alli&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la famille de Tumbwe, suzerain d&amp;#39;importantes chefferies entre le Lualaba et la rive ouest du Tanganyika, qui r&amp;eacute;clamait l&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;monie sur l&amp;#39;est du Buluba tout entier, se pr&amp;eacute;valant de son ascendance avec Kongolo, fondateur du Ier empire luba. Cette famille &amp;eacute;tait alors divis&amp;eacute;e par des guerres intestines. Mais Sohola, l&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;ritier du titre, devait parvenir &amp;agrave; y r&amp;eacute;tablir la paix. De surcro&amp;icirc;t, il allait bient&amp;ocirc;t faire acte d&amp;#39;all&amp;eacute;geance envers llunga Sungu, IXe successeur de Mbidyi Kiluwe, le cr&amp;eacute;ateur du second empire luba. Il re&amp;ccedil;ut d&amp;#39;Ilunga Sungu le bulohwe (pouvoir sacr&amp;eacute;), ce qui assurait d&amp;eacute;finitivement son pouvoir et donnait &amp;agrave; ses pr&amp;eacute;tentions annexionnistes une assise juridique d&amp;#39;autant plus forte que l&amp;#39;empereur lui avait confi&amp;eacute; l&amp;#39;administration du Buluba, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;est du Lualaba. Sohola en profita aussit&amp;ocirc;t pour s&amp;#39;emparer de quelques sous-chefferies des Bangoy, alli&amp;eacute;s directs de Mbuli. Pour &amp;eacute;carter la menace que visiblement, les Tumbwe faisaient peser sur ses terres, Mbuli Songa, IVe roi de Buli, demanda &amp;agrave; son tour la protection de l&amp;#39;empereur Kumwimba Ngombe, successeur d&amp;#39;Ilunga Sungu. Il re&amp;ccedil;ut de celui-ci les insignes traditionnels des balohwe : la courge mboko remplie d&amp;#39;argile blanche, le briquet traditionnel luvyo, donnant le feu sacr&amp;eacute; des esprits, enfin le droit de poss&amp;eacute;der l&amp;eacute;gitimement le tr&amp;ocirc;ne kihona. Il faut pr&amp;eacute;ciser ici que le bulohwe d&amp;eacute;signe le pouvoir ou l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; &amp;mdash; mystique et politique &amp;mdash; attach&amp;eacute; au sang sacr&amp;eacute; de Mbidyi Kiluwe. Seuls les descendants (par la voie des femmes) de celui-ci d&amp;eacute;tiennent authentiquement le bulohwe. Mais une fiction juridique leur permet de transmettre une part de leur pouvoir &amp;agrave; des chefs n&amp;#39;appartenant pas &amp;agrave; la lign&amp;eacute;e imp&amp;eacute;riale. Ces chefs entraient ainsi fictivement dans leur famille : ils &amp;eacute;taient assur&amp;eacute;s de la protection des esprits Vidye qui veillaient &amp;agrave; la d&amp;eacute;fense et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;grit&amp;eacute; du bulohwe. L&amp;#39;on con&amp;ccedil;oit que ces chefs &amp;laquo; fictifs &amp;raquo; aient stimul&amp;eacute; la production de signes ou d&amp;#39;embl&amp;egrave;mes affichant les liens &amp;laquo; r&amp;eacute;els &amp;raquo; qui les unissaient &amp;agrave; la branche des balohwe authentiques. Ces signes garantissaient leur nouvelle identit&amp;eacute; et l&amp;eacute;galisaient ainsi leur pouvoir. L&amp;#39;on peut penser que c&amp;#39;est de cette &amp;eacute;poque que date le d&amp;eacute;veloppement intensif, &amp;agrave; Buli, d&amp;#39;un art aulique sp&amp;eacute;cifique, dont l&amp;#39;esth&amp;eacute;tique dut &amp;ecirc;tre logiquement inspir&amp;eacute;e par le souci d&amp;#39;allier les traditions plastiques (kunda) de la chefferie &amp;agrave; celles des nouveaux suzerains.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;acte d&amp;#39;all&amp;eacute;geance qu&amp;#39;impliquait l&amp;#39;investiture du bulohwe commandait sans aucun doute l&amp;#39;abandon, pour le roi de Buli, de sa souverainet&amp;eacute;. Mais les liens qui unissaient l&amp;#39;empereur aux chefs investis &amp;eacute;taient moins de vassalit&amp;eacute; que d&amp;#39;amiti&amp;eacute;, et les milamba (dons, pr&amp;eacute;sents) que versaient ces derniers &amp;eacute;taient re&amp;ccedil;us plut&amp;ocirc;t comme marques de fid&amp;eacute;lit&amp;eacute; que comme v&amp;eacute;ritable tribut. En revanche, l&amp;#39;investiture garantissait aux seigneurs de Buli une ind&amp;eacute;pendance r&amp;eacute;elle dans leur politique ext&amp;eacute;rieure et un surcro&amp;icirc;t de prestige aupr&amp;egrave;s de leurs sujets. Gr&amp;acirc;ce aux alliances pass&amp;eacute;es entre le conqu&amp;eacute;rant Buki (cfr supra) et certains membres de sa famille, Mbuli &amp;eacute;tendit encore son emprise sur le nord. D&amp;egrave;s cette &amp;eacute;poque, la chefferie v&amp;eacute;cut autant dans la mouvance du &amp;laquo; royaume &amp;raquo; de Buki que dans celle de l&amp;#39;empire luba proprement dit.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Peu de temps apr&amp;egrave;s, la chefferie de Kanunu entra, gr&amp;acirc;ce au jeu des successions matrilin&amp;eacute;aires, dans l&amp;#39;apanage de Mbuli.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La chefferie connut alors, pendant pr&amp;egrave;s de trois quarts de si&amp;egrave;cle, une exceptionnelle prosp&amp;eacute;rit&amp;eacute;. La richesse des terres, de nature alluvionnaire, favorise l&amp;#39;expansion de l&amp;#39;agriculture. Le gibier (buffles et &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;phants) est abondant. Mbuli enverra bient&amp;ocirc;t vendre son ivoire sur la c&amp;ocirc;te ouest du Tanganyika, &amp;agrave; six jours de marche de ses fronti&amp;egrave;res. Le d&amp;eacute;veloppement &amp;eacute;conomique se double d&amp;#39;une croissance d&amp;eacute;mographique consid&amp;eacute;rable. Outre les facteurs internes, la richesse du Buli constitue un p&amp;ocirc;le d&amp;#39;attraction : des villages entiers viennent s&amp;#39;installer dans le territoire. De nombreux chefs y cherchent refuge : certains d&amp;#39;entre eux sont parmi les victimes de Buki. Plus tard, avec les Arabes et le d&amp;eacute;mant&amp;egrave;lement de nombreuses chefferies du nord, le mouvement s&amp;#39;acc&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;rera. Car Buli est une v&amp;eacute;ritable forteresse : prot&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute;e par les deux fleuves, les contreforts forestiers du nord-est, et surtout au nord, le verrou des &amp;laquo; portes de l&amp;#39;enfer &amp;raquo; (cataractes infranchissables sur le Lualaba, en aval de Kongolo), la seigneurerie restera constamment &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;abri de toute incursion, m&amp;ecirc;me lorsque les Arabes auront investi la r&amp;eacute;gion du Lomani d&amp;#39;o&amp;ugrave; ils menaceront le Buluba tout entier. Seul, peu apr&amp;egrave;s 1880, l&amp;#39;arabis&amp;eacute; Kabamba tentera de franchir les fronti&amp;egrave;res de Buli : il dut rapidement battre en retraite, abandonnant ses armes sur le terrain.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La politique des princes de Buli envers les &amp;eacute;trangers qui leur demandent asile est tr&amp;egrave;s ouverte : leur pouvoir est li&amp;eacute;, notamment, au nombre de sujets qui leur paient tribut et les populations nouvelles viennent grossir les r&amp;eacute;serves de l&amp;#39;arm&amp;eacute;e.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ces circonstances expliquent sans doute (outre la &amp;laquo; demande &amp;raquo; ult&amp;eacute;rieure des Europ&amp;eacute;ens) le nombre exceptionnellement &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; de si&amp;egrave;ges auliques qui furent d&amp;eacute;couverts plus tard &amp;agrave; Buli. Certains de ces si&amp;egrave;ges &amp;eacute;taient sans doute r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;s aux lieutenants du prince, pour la plupart membres de sa famille, install&amp;eacute;s aux postes-clefs des fronti&amp;egrave;res de l&amp;#39;Etat : Bola et Kasyala &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;est, Ngolo au nord, Ngoya &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ouest, etc. D&amp;#39;autres durent &amp;ecirc;tre sculpt&amp;eacute;s pour ces chefs &amp;eacute;trangers, venus se placer sous la protection de Mbuli. Le don du kihona (qui demeurait, en dernier ressort, propri&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; du prince) mat&amp;eacute;rialisait un contrat d&amp;#39;assistance et de fid&amp;eacute;lit&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;ciproques.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les Arabes tenus &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cart, une autre menace allait bient&amp;ocirc;t peser sur l&amp;#39;ind&amp;eacute;pendance de Buli. L&amp;#39;empire Yeke de M&amp;#39;siri ne cessait de s&amp;#39;accro&amp;icirc;tre, gagnant progressivement le nord du Buluba. Vers 1885, Simbi (ou Simba), l&amp;#39;un des fils de M&amp;#39;siri, est solidement implant&amp;eacute; avec ses guerriers &amp;agrave; Ankoro32. Il r&amp;eacute;side r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement &amp;agrave; Kabalo, l&amp;#39;un des villages de Buli. L&amp;#39;on peut penser que Kilela, VIIIe prince de Buli, suivant la strat&amp;eacute;gie de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres, avait pass&amp;eacute; avec le chef yeke un trait&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;alliance qui garantissait son ind&amp;eacute;pendance.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le 7 novembre 1892, A. Delcommune, accompagn&amp;eacute; de N. Diderrich, P. Briart, etc., &amp;agrave; la t&amp;ecirc;te d&amp;#39;une exp&amp;eacute;dition commandit&amp;eacute;e par la Compagnie du Katanga, p&amp;eacute;n&amp;egrave;tre &amp;agrave; Bola, avant-poste est de Buli sur la rivi&amp;egrave;re Luizi. Ils se montrent stup&amp;eacute;faits de la richesse du pays, l&amp;#39;importance et le nombre de ses villages. &amp;laquo; C&amp;#39;est, note Briart, le pays le plus peupl&amp;eacute; que nous ayons rencontr&amp;eacute; dans notre voyage &amp;raquo;33. De Bola au village de Buli, alors implant&amp;eacute; sur la rive gauche de la Lukuga, Delcommune compte dix agglom&amp;eacute;rations, et au-del&amp;agrave;, jusqu&amp;#39;au Lualaba, une trentaine d&amp;#39;autres34. Briart note que le village de Buli compte, &amp;agrave; lui seul, au moins 2.500 habitants.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les rapports entre Mbuli Kilela et Delcommune furent fort tendus : Mbuli refuse de se montrer, produit un sosie d&amp;eacute;guis&amp;eacute; en Arabe, etc. Ce n&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;apr&amp;egrave;s avoir menac&amp;eacute; le prince de mettre le feu &amp;agrave; ses villages que Delcommune put hisser sur ceux-ci le drapeau bleu &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;toile d&amp;#39;or de l&amp;#39;Etat Ind&amp;eacute;pendant. Mbuli avait &amp;eacute;videmment compris qu&amp;#39;il ne s&amp;#39;agissait plus, cette fois, d&amp;#39;alliance mais d&amp;#39;ali&amp;eacute;nation.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dix-huit mois plus tard, l&amp;#39;exp&amp;eacute;dition de S.-L. Hinde, accompagn&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;Am&amp;eacute;ricain Mohun, charg&amp;eacute;e par Dhanis de remonter le Lualaba et la Lukuga, p&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;trera &amp;agrave; son tour dans les terres de Buli. Hinde rel&amp;egrave;ve l&amp;#39;exceptionnelle beaut&amp;eacute; des objets (cannes, etc.) sculpt&amp;eacute;s, en bois et en ivoire, qu&amp;#39;il observe entre les mains des habitants du lieu35. Selon l&amp;#39;historien Cornet, Hinde serait ainsi l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; inventeur &amp;raquo; de l&amp;#39;art de Buli36. Par ailleurs, Hinde et Mohun, tout comme Delcommune, sont frapp&amp;eacute;s par la densit&amp;eacute; extraordinaire de la population37. Mbuli r&amp;eacute;gnait sans doute sur plus de 80 villages (en 1914, l&amp;#39;empereur des Baluba, Kabongo, ne contr&amp;ocirc;lait que 130 villages38), et l&amp;#39;on peut estimer &amp;agrave; plus de 60.000 le nombre de ses sujets.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En juillet 1897, le Fran&amp;ccedil;ais Ed. Fo&amp;agrave;, cherchant &amp;agrave; forcer un nouveau passage entre le Tanganyika et le Lualaba, s&amp;#39;avancera profond&amp;eacute;ment dans le Buluba sur la Haute Luizi, &amp;agrave; quelque 125 km de Buli, avant de se voir forc&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la retraite. Il en rapportera deux petites figurines, dues &amp;agrave; la main de l&amp;#39;un des Ma&amp;icirc;tres qui nous occupent39. Fo&amp;agrave; trouve la r&amp;eacute;gion dans l&amp;#39;anarchie la plus compl&amp;egrave;te : les chefs sont en guerre les uns contre les autres, les champs sont ravag&amp;eacute;s, les villages br&amp;ucirc;l&amp;eacute;s40. La chute de l&amp;#39;empire arabe du Maniema et du Lomani au nord et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;ouest, celle des Bayeke au sud, suscitent de multiples combats pour la reconqu&amp;ecirc;te du pouvoir au sein des anciennes chefferies. Les troubles gagnent les r&amp;eacute;gions pourtant pr&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;es de la pr&amp;eacute;sence arabe. La r&amp;eacute;volte des &amp;laquo; Batetela &amp;raquo; provoque des d&amp;eacute;placements de populations. Une autre cause non moins grave de troubles r&amp;eacute;side dans une &amp;eacute;pid&amp;eacute;mie de variole qui s&amp;eacute;vit bient&amp;ocirc;t dans toute la vall&amp;eacute;e de la Luizi et de la Lukuga. Les devins imputent la cause de la maladie aux Anc&amp;ecirc;tres, jaloux de la pr&amp;eacute;sence des Blancs. Les sacrifices humains se multiplient. Cette &amp;eacute;pid&amp;eacute;mie, bient&amp;ocirc;t suivie d&amp;#39;une vague de trypanosiomase d&amp;eacute;cime, en moins de dix ans, les quatre cinqui&amp;egrave;mes de la population41. Le travail forc&amp;eacute; ach&amp;egrave;vera enfin de vider les chefferies du nord de la part active de leurs habitants42. Voil&amp;agrave; qui explique sans doute le nombre d&amp;#39;objets qui durent alors se trouver sans propri&amp;eacute;taire &amp;mdash; et notamment de si&amp;egrave;ges tragiquement vacants &amp;mdash; et qui furent alors offerts ou vendus aux Blancs.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En 1900, le Comit&amp;eacute; Sp&amp;eacute;cial du Katanga charge le Lt Paternoster de cr&amp;eacute;er une station &amp;agrave; Ngoma, au confluent du Lualaba et de la Lukuga. Elle re&amp;ccedil;oit le nom de &amp;laquo; Buli &amp;raquo;. C&amp;#39;est l&amp;agrave; que Malfeyt concentrera ses troupes en vue de mater les derniers &amp;laquo; Batetela &amp;raquo;, r&amp;eacute;fugi&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; Kikondja. En 1907, le poste de Buli sera d&amp;eacute;plac&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;une vingtaine de kilom&amp;egrave;tres vers le sud (fig. 6), pour servir de point d&amp;#39;arriv&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; la route carrossable, venant de Tshofa, construite par Bure. Buli est alors d&amp;eacute;finitivement ouvert &amp;agrave; la colonisation43.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli6.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 700px; height: 987px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 6. Deux des emplacements de Buli, poste d&amp;#39;Etat (1912).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;expos&amp;eacute; qui pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;egrave;de r&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;le assez la singularit&amp;eacute; du destin de la seigneurie de Buli. A une &amp;eacute;poque o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;empire luba, d&amp;eacute;chir&amp;eacute; par des guerres intestines, entre dans un irr&amp;eacute;versible d&amp;eacute;clin, acc&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute; encore par les conqu&amp;ecirc;tes de M&amp;#39;siri au sud et la main-mise arabe sur le nord et bient&amp;ocirc;t le c&amp;oelig;ur de l&amp;#39;empire, ce petit royaume conna&amp;icirc;t une p&amp;eacute;riode ininterrompue de prosp&amp;eacute;rit&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;conomique et d&amp;eacute;mographique. Celle-ci est due &amp;agrave; la position g&amp;eacute;ographique privil&amp;eacute;gi&amp;eacute;e du pays, qui en fait une forteresse naturelle, et &amp;agrave; la richesse de ses sols, mais aussi &amp;agrave; la politique ext&amp;eacute;rieure de ses chefs, qui surent constamment pr&amp;eacute;server leur ind&amp;eacute;pendance gr&amp;acirc;ce &amp;agrave; un jeu d&amp;#39;alliances qui ne pouvaient que d&amp;eacute;courager les vis&amp;eacute;es expansionnistes des chefs voisins. L&amp;#39;inf&amp;eacute;odation des seigneurs de Buli &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;empire luba n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait que nominale : l&amp;#39;investiture au bulohwe renfor&amp;ccedil;ait en r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; leur ind&amp;eacute;pendance et leur autorit&amp;eacute;. En entrant dans la famille imp&amp;eacute;riale, ils conqu&amp;eacute;raient d&amp;eacute;finitivement les titres l&amp;eacute;gitimant leur pouvoir sur les terres dont ils s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;taient empar&amp;eacute;s. Cette volont&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;ind&amp;eacute;pendance, ce souci de l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;clam&amp;eacute;s cette fois non des empereurs vivants mais des Anc&amp;ecirc;tres, inspirent &amp;eacute;galement l&amp;#39;histoire religieuse de la chefferie.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Histoire religieuse de Buli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Durant toute la p&amp;eacute;riode coloniale, missionnaires et agents de l&amp;#39;Etat n&amp;#39;ont cess&amp;eacute; de signaler le nombre, l&amp;#39;importance et la force de r&amp;eacute;sistance des &amp;laquo; sectes de sorciers &amp;raquo; dans le nord du Buluba, et sp&amp;eacute;cialement dans la r&amp;eacute;gion de Kabalo-Kongolo &amp;mdash; le c&amp;oelig;ur de l&amp;#39;ancienne chefferie de Buli. Or, les traditions actuelles, confirm&amp;eacute;es sur de nombreux points par les t&amp;eacute;moignages anciens (celui du P. Colle, en particulier), imputent la cr&amp;eacute;ation des plus importantes de ces soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s initiatiques aux princes de Buli eux-m&amp;ecirc;mes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mbuli Ier &amp;laquo; le vieux &amp;raquo; doit toujours sa renomm&amp;eacute;e autant &amp;agrave; ses fonctions sacr&amp;eacute;es qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; ses titres de conqu&amp;eacute;rant et de chef politique. On lui attribue ainsi la cr&amp;eacute;ation de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; des Bambuli, danseurs th&amp;eacute;rapeuthes et n&amp;eacute;cromanciens qui, avant d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre r&amp;eacute;cup&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s par le folklore colonial, exer&amp;ccedil;aient des fonctions de contr&amp;ocirc;le sur les &amp;laquo; revenants &amp;raquo;, tout en s&amp;#39;affirmant comme les d&amp;eacute;positaires de la puret&amp;eacute; des m&amp;oelig;urs ancestrales. Cette tradition n&amp;#39;est sans doute fond&amp;eacute;e que sur une homonymie, car l&amp;#39;on poss&amp;egrave;de de nombreuses autres versions de l&amp;#39;origine de cette soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;mdash; toujours tr&amp;egrave;s active44. Signalons toutefois qu&amp;#39;un rapport in&amp;eacute;dit dat&amp;eacute; de 1915, mentionne qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; Kabongo, les Bambuli honoraient Mbuli comme l&amp;#39;un de leurs principaux g&amp;eacute;nies45.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	C&amp;#39;est &amp;eacute;galement &amp;agrave; Mbuli Ier qu&amp;#39;il faudrait imputer l&amp;#39;institution de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; des Bilumbu. Colle confirme explicitement la tradition locale46. Les bilumbu, rappelons-le, exercent chez les Baluba d&amp;#39;importantes fonctions de devins et de gu&amp;eacute;risseurs. Initi&amp;eacute;s aux myst&amp;egrave;res d&amp;#39;un esprit particulier (notamment Kabwelulu), ils re&amp;ccedil;oivent de celui-ci le pouvoir d&amp;rsquo;identifier les auteurs de sortil&amp;egrave;ges et de mal&amp;eacute;fices et d&amp;#39;indiquer les th&amp;eacute;rapies appropri&amp;eacute;es, au besoin les voies de la vengeance.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les bilumbu, ou leurs homologues, sont connus dans tout le Buluba, voire le Za&amp;iuml;re et au-del&amp;agrave;. Le plus souvent du reste, ils op&amp;egrave;rent seuls. La tradition a donc un caract&amp;egrave;re nettement l&amp;eacute;gendaire. Mais elle recouvre peut-&amp;ecirc;tre un fait r&amp;eacute;el, soit qu&amp;#39;un des princes de Buli ait effectivement entrepris de structurer les bilumbu en association ferm&amp;eacute;e afin d&amp;#39;en contr&amp;ocirc;ler les activit&amp;eacute;s et s&amp;#39;affirmer ainsi comme le ma&amp;icirc;tre des Devins officiels.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	C&amp;#39;est toujours &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;un des chefs de Buli, probablement Mbuli IV Songa, que l&amp;#39;on devrait la cr&amp;eacute;ation de deux autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s initiatiques luba : la buyangwe et le kabwala, auxquelles Colle consacre de longues pages. Les dignitaires du kabwala passent pour de redoutables sorciers tandis que les simples adeptes semblent ne rechercher dans l&amp;#39;initiation qu&amp;#39;un surcro&amp;icirc;t de chance, une protection accrue contre les morts et les esprits. Les bayangwe sont eux, de v&amp;eacute;ritables chamans. Ils d&amp;eacute;tiennent entre autres, le pouvoir de se rendre invisibles, de se d&amp;eacute;doubler, de voler dans les airs, de se m&amp;eacute;tamorphoser en lion, l&amp;eacute;opard, etc. Ils doivent ces facult&amp;eacute;s aux morts avec lesquels ils sont en contact permanent.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Selon Colle, une autre soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;eacute;tenant de redoutables secrets, celle du bulungu, aurait traditionnellement pour chef le prince de Buli47.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;une des s&amp;eacute;quences les plus int&amp;eacute;ressantes recueillies par le m&amp;ecirc;me auteur, de la bouche des descendants de Mbuli Ier, situe la source des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s du bulumbu, du buyangwe et du kabwala, dans l&amp;#39;empire des Morts. En effet, un certain Kazula (&amp;laquo; le novateur &amp;raquo;), chassant le phacoch&amp;egrave;re dans les monts Suya (au-del&amp;agrave; de la fronti&amp;egrave;re sud-ouest de Buli), apr&amp;egrave;s avoir vu le sol se d&amp;eacute;rober sous ses pieds, s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait retrouv&amp;eacute; dans une vaste caverne o&amp;ugrave; il avait assist&amp;eacute;, fascin&amp;eacute;, aux danses &amp;eacute;tranges des Morts. Rassur&amp;eacute;, apr&amp;egrave;s avoir reconnu parmi ceux-ci ses propres anc&amp;ecirc;tres, il avait demand&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; &amp;ecirc;tre initi&amp;eacute; aux myst&amp;egrave;res de ces chor&amp;eacute;graphies et &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres secrets. Revenu sur terre, Kazula s&amp;#39;empressa de mettre dans la confidence de ces &amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;nements le chef Mbuli, qui n&amp;#39;eut de cesse d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre initi&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; son tour aux m&amp;ecirc;mes arcanes &amp;mdash; ce qui lui fut bient&amp;ocirc;t donn&amp;eacute; lors d&amp;#39;un s&amp;eacute;jour dans le royaume obscur. Mbuli re&amp;ccedil;ut m&amp;ecirc;me du &amp;laquo; roi des Morts &amp;raquo; le droit d&amp;#39;initier &amp;agrave; son tour ses propres sujets aux rites du bulumbu, du buyangwe et du kabwala.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ce mythe, diffus&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la cour de Buli, tend &amp;agrave; faire des souverains du lieu les seuls d&amp;eacute;positaires l&amp;eacute;gitimes des traditions sacr&amp;eacute;es de la r&amp;eacute;gion &amp;mdash; voire du nord tout entier du Buluba, car l&amp;#39;on sait que les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s dirig&amp;eacute;es par eux recrutaient leurs adeptes bien au-del&amp;agrave; des fronti&amp;egrave;res strictes de Buli. Les chefs de Buli, l&amp;eacute;gataires des pouvoirs des Morts (ultimes propri&amp;eacute;taires du sol, r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence sacr&amp;eacute;e des institutions culturelles), s&amp;#39;affirmaient ainsi comme les d&amp;eacute;tenteurs souverains de l&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute; culturelle luba elle-m&amp;ecirc;me. La l&amp;eacute;gende dut &amp;ecirc;tre diffus&amp;eacute;e avec d&amp;#39;autant plus d&amp;#39;insistance qu&amp;#39;elle cautionnait l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; de chefs dont il importe de rappeler qu&amp;#39;ils &amp;eacute;taient d&amp;#39;origine &amp;eacute;trang&amp;egrave;re (kunda/buyu). Le mythe aurait ainsi la m&amp;ecirc;me fonction l&amp;eacute;gitimante que l&amp;#39;acte d&amp;#39;all&amp;eacute;geance rendu par Mbuli Songa &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;empereur luba, qui l&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;levait &amp;agrave; la dignit&amp;eacute; de mulohwe. Voil&amp;agrave; qui fournit sans doute l&amp;#39;explication des ph&amp;eacute;nom&amp;egrave;nes religieux qui se sont &amp;nbsp;d&amp;eacute;velopp&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; Buli, et notamment du nombre exceptionnellement &amp;eacute;lev&amp;eacute; de soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s initiatiques qui y trouv&amp;egrave;rent leur origine (m&amp;ecirc;me en faisant la part de la l&amp;eacute;gende) : cinq des neufs soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s rep&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;es au d&amp;eacute;but du si&amp;egrave;cle dans le nord du Buluba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Un tel foisonnement pourrait certes s&amp;#39;expliquer par l&amp;#39;origine tr&amp;egrave;s diverse des populations qui, durant le XIXe si&amp;egrave;cle, cherch&amp;egrave;rent refuge dans la chefferie, en y apportant leurs institutions, leurs croyances et sans doute leurs confr&amp;eacute;ries propres. Le souci de contr&amp;ocirc;ler celles-ci dut inciter les suzerains de Buli &amp;agrave; vouloir s&amp;#39;imposer chaque fois &amp;agrave; leur t&amp;ecirc;te. Toutefois, dans la plupart des cas, rapporte la tradition, la famille dynastique de Buli ne s&amp;#39;est pas born&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; affirmer son autorit&amp;eacute; sur des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s existantes : elle en a promu de nouvelles, comme si elle n&amp;#39;avait eu de cesse de multiplier les sources de son pouvoir, les cautions de sa l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A. Sohier, dans son Trait&amp;eacute; du droit coutumier congolais, estime que lorsqu&amp;#39;un chef investi entend accro&amp;icirc;tre son pouvoir en le cumulant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; que conf&amp;egrave;rent les dignit&amp;eacute;s et le prestige religieux et/ou sorcellaire, c&amp;#39;est qu&amp;#39;il cherche &amp;agrave; &amp;eacute;chapper &amp;agrave; une menace &amp;eacute;manant soit de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tranger soit de ses propres sujets. Cette analyse semble pouvoir &amp;ecirc;tre appliqu&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; Buli, menac&amp;eacute; au sud par les vassaux de Tumbwe, et bient&amp;ocirc;t par Buki au nord ; lieu de refuge par ailleurs pour des populations qui, par le seul fait d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre &amp;eacute;trang&amp;egrave;res, pouvaient constituer une menace pour le pouvoir en place. Les titres, h&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;ditaires, de &amp;laquo; ma&amp;icirc;tre &amp;raquo; du bulungu, du buyangwe et d&amp;#39;autres soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s qui d&amp;eacute;tenaient les moyens d&amp;#39;exercer une v&amp;eacute;ritable terreur, devaient constituer un motif de crainte suffisant, &amp;agrave; lui seul, pour &amp;eacute;carter les menaces de s&amp;eacute;dition et m&amp;ecirc;me les tentations d&amp;#39;annexion.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La volont&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;ind&amp;eacute;pendance qui inspire la politique de Buli et qui trouve son corollaire dans le d&amp;eacute;veloppement d&amp;#39;une id&amp;eacute;ologie nationaliste, fond&amp;eacute;e notamment sur l&amp;#39;exploitation du culte des morts, dut se voir renforc&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;orgueil que durent &amp;eacute;prouver les seigneurs de Buli devant le contraste qu&amp;#39;offrait la prosp&amp;eacute;rit&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;conomique et d&amp;eacute;mographique de leur Etat et le d&amp;eacute;clin des chefferies voisines, voire de l&amp;#39;empire luba tout entier.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Quoi qu&amp;#39;il en soit, il semble clair que l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;ologie nationaliste de la Cour, command&amp;eacute;e par la n&amp;eacute;cessit&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;afficher une identit&amp;eacute; culturelle sp&amp;eacute;cifique, n&amp;#39;a pu qu&amp;#39;imprimer intimement son sceau sur un art dont tout indique qu&amp;#39;il &amp;eacute;tait &amp;eacute;troitement li&amp;eacute; au destin de la famille dynastique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Id&amp;eacute;ologie aulique et esth&amp;eacute;tique de Buli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	De forts indices laissent penser, on l&amp;#39;a vu, que les sculpteurs de Buli ont travaill&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; la Cour de leurs ma&amp;icirc;tres. L&amp;#39;on a d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; soulign&amp;eacute; que la quasi-totalit&amp;eacute; des &amp;oelig;uvres que nous leur devons entrait dans la cat&amp;eacute;gorie des insignes ou des paras&amp;egrave;mes du pouvoir. C&amp;#39;est le cas des tr&amp;ocirc;nes bihona, embl&amp;egrave;mes &amp;mdash; et agents &amp;mdash; de l&amp;#39;autorit&amp;eacute; politique et judiciaire &amp;mdash; nous y reviendrons. Le cas des effigies mortuaires mikisi : celles-ci &amp;eacute;taient invoqu&amp;eacute;es par le chef dans toutes les circonstances importantes, publiques ou priv&amp;eacute;es, de sa vie. Conserv&amp;eacute;es significativement dans une case proche de celle o&amp;ugrave; il si&amp;eacute;geait publiquement, elles inspiraient, notamment, ses d&amp;eacute;cisions politiques. Quant aux porteuses de coupe bamboko ou maloba mpesi (nous en connaissons trois, dues aux sculpteurs de Buli), parmi les fonctions qu&amp;#39;elles assument, la plus importante, la plus lourdement grev&amp;eacute;e de valeur politique et sociale, les rattache au rituel d&amp;#39;investiture au bulohwe. Insigne l&amp;eacute;gal de l&amp;#39;ascendance sacr&amp;eacute;e des chefs, contenant le kaolin offert par l&amp;#39;empereur lui-m&amp;ecirc;me48, elle &amp;laquo; assurait au chef, comme le dit le P. Avermaet, la fid&amp;eacute;lit&amp;eacute; de ses femmes, le loyalisme de ses sujets, le succ&amp;egrave;s &amp;agrave; la chasse &amp;raquo;, et &amp;laquo; devait le pr&amp;eacute;munir contre tout danger, toute maladie et lui donner la victoire sur ses ennemis... &amp;raquo;49.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La Porteuse de coupe de Tervuren aurait une fonction plus pr&amp;eacute;cise encore si l&amp;#39;on se r&amp;eacute;f&amp;egrave;re au t&amp;eacute;moignage du chef Kanunu, son dernier propri&amp;eacute;taire l&amp;eacute;gitime. Selon celui-ci, la Porteuse servait &amp;laquo; &amp;agrave; obtenir beaucoup de malafu &amp;raquo;50, soit du vin de palme ou de la bi&amp;egrave;re de sorgho. Or, le malafu (ou malu&amp;#39;u) entrait dans la classe des produits dont une partie &amp;eacute;tait due, comme tribut, aux chefs. Il &amp;eacute;tait conserv&amp;eacute; dans des jarres d&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute;es dans une case construite aupr&amp;egrave;s de celle qui &amp;eacute;tait r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;e aux effigies des anc&amp;ecirc;tres royaux. A ces derni&amp;egrave;res &amp;eacute;tait offerte une portion du malafu, vers&amp;eacute; dans le mboko qui veillait la nuit &amp;agrave; leur c&amp;ocirc;t&amp;eacute;51. Lors de ce rituel, l&amp;#39;on demandait aux Anc&amp;ecirc;tres d&amp;#39;assurer la sauvegarde de la chefferie, de veiller sur le prince, d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tendre son empire et le nombre de ses sujets. &amp;laquo; Obtenir beaucoup de malafu &amp;raquo; est donc une mani&amp;egrave;re imag&amp;eacute;e de d&amp;eacute;signer la fonction f&amp;eacute;condante, celle d&amp;#39;&amp;laquo; incitant d&amp;eacute;mographique &amp;raquo; de la coupe &amp;mdash; l&amp;#39;importance du tribut &amp;eacute;tant proportionnelle &amp;agrave; celle de la population.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Enfin, m&amp;ecirc;me la petite t&amp;ecirc;te du Kabwelulu pourrait renvoyer aux fonctions sacr&amp;eacute;es des princes de Buli, chefs h&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;ditaires des devins bilumbu.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tous ces faits confirment, s&amp;#39;il en &amp;eacute;tait besoin, que les Ma&amp;icirc;tres de Buli appartenaient &amp;agrave; la classe de ces sculpteurs magiciens bwana batombe, dont le m&amp;eacute;tier seul r&amp;eacute;clamait une initiation aux myst&amp;egrave;res de la vie religieuse et politique de l&amp;#39;Etat et qui, de ce fait, faisaient partie de droit du conseil priv&amp;eacute; du Prince. L&amp;#39;on peut l&amp;eacute;gitimement penser que leur art, et l&amp;#39;esth&amp;eacute;tique qui l&amp;#39;inspire, ne pouvaient demeurer &amp;eacute;trangers &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;ologie dominante de la Cour.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les tendances expressionnistes accentu&amp;eacute;es par le dynamisme &amp;laquo; baroque &amp;raquo; qui caract&amp;eacute;rise le sous-style de Buli, t&amp;eacute;moignent de la volont&amp;eacute; de rapprocher les motifs plastiques traditionnels (anc&amp;ecirc;tres, esprits) de l&amp;#39;apparence sensible du mod&amp;egrave;le vivant, soit le corps humain correspondant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;al esth&amp;eacute;tique impos&amp;eacute; par la culture kunda et luba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cet id&amp;eacute;al, dont les crit&amp;egrave;res demeurent partiellement inconscients, nous le connaissons par les traits que d&amp;eacute;gage l&amp;#39;observation des pi&amp;egrave;ces classiques kunda (certains sous-groupes buyu, zoba, sanze, bware, etc.) et luba du nord, et par les donn&amp;eacute;es de terrain. Front d&amp;eacute;gag&amp;eacute; et bomb&amp;eacute;, yeux &amp;eacute;cart&amp;eacute;s, l&amp;eacute;g&amp;egrave;rement exorbit&amp;eacute;s, nez effil&amp;eacute;, bouche pro&amp;eacute;minente, sont des constantes r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement cit&amp;eacute;es. Pour le corps de la femme, les seins tombants, tronconiques, la taille cambr&amp;eacute;e, la pro&amp;eacute;minence du ventre, les cuisses puissantes, sans compter des traits culturels tels les tatouages, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;pilation du pubis, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;longation des labiae, etc. En fait, le corps est un v&amp;eacute;ritable champ de signes dont nul n&amp;#39;est indiff&amp;eacute;rent : le front et les yeux marquent la force de l&amp;#39;intelligence et du verbe, la bouche est apotropa&amp;iuml;que. L&amp;#39;esth&amp;eacute;tique du corps f&amp;eacute;minin rel&amp;egrave;ve d&amp;#39;une id&amp;eacute;ologie de la f&amp;eacute;condit&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Or, le paradigme du corps qui s&amp;#39;impose naturellement est celui de l&amp;#39;Anc&amp;ecirc;tre et de ses descendants naturels : La famille r&amp;eacute;gnante. L&amp;#39;on peut donc &amp;eacute;noncer comme une r&amp;egrave;gle g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale que, dans tous les Etats centralis&amp;eacute;s de l&amp;#39;Afrique noire, l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;al esth&amp;eacute;tique collectif tendait &amp;agrave; se constituer par r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;aspect ext&amp;eacute;rieur, aux traits somatiques et physionomiques de la famille dynastique. Parmi de multiples exemples, signalons l&amp;#39;ancien royaume kongo de San Salvador52, les Bakuba o&amp;ugrave; les membres des familles dynastiques bushong&amp;rsquo; 53 incarnaient l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;al de la beaut&amp;eacute;, tout comme les rois &amp;eacute;thiopiens ou encore, au Rwanda, la famille r&amp;eacute;gnante des Banyiginya (o&amp;ugrave; la beaut&amp;eacute; est la figure royale). Il n&amp;#39;est pas douteux que le r&amp;eacute;alisme des arts kongo, kuba (l&amp;#39;on pourrait &amp;eacute;voquer aussi &amp;eacute;galement If&amp;eacute; et le B&amp;eacute;nin) s&amp;#39;explique par la volont&amp;eacute;, politique et magique, de pr&amp;eacute;server par-del&amp;agrave; la mort, l&amp;#39;apparence physique, sacr&amp;eacute;e, des princes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il en allait de m&amp;ecirc;me chez les Baluba, dont les balohwe r&amp;eacute;clamaient leur ascendance de Dieu. L&amp;#39;on rel&amp;egrave;vera ici que certains de nos informateurs ont reconnu plusieurs sculptures de Buli comme les repr&amp;eacute;sentations m&amp;ecirc;mes des princes du lieu &amp;mdash; singuli&amp;egrave;rement Mbuli Mukulu. A cet &amp;eacute;gard, la ressemblance sensible qu&amp;#39;offrent certaines figures de Buli et les traits de l&amp;#39;un de nos informateurs, le citoyen Kimbalanga, descendant d&amp;#39;une famille apparent&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; celle des anciens chefs de Buli, ne laisse pas de troubler (voir fig. 7).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/buli7.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 600px; height: 727px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fig. 7. Le citoyen Kimbalanga, descendant&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	des anciens chefs de Buli, tenant en main une statuette&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	qui repr&amp;eacute;sente vraisemblablement l&amp;#39;un de ses anc&amp;ecirc;tres.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Archives de l&amp;#39;auteur.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il est hors de doute, par ailleurs, que les motifs plastiques majeurs de l&amp;#39;art traditionnel ne pouvaient que favoriser le processus d&amp;#39;une certaine identification entre l&amp;#39;apparence du Prince et la figure paradigmatique de l&amp;#39;Anc&amp;ecirc;tre. Telle est l&amp;#39;une des fonctions, d&amp;eacute;riv&amp;eacute;e mais importante, des effigies servant de cariatides aux si&amp;egrave;ges auliques bihona.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les fonctions de ces si&amp;egrave;ges se conjuguent sur un axe double : chronologique, o&amp;ugrave; ils mat&amp;eacute;rialisent les liens qui unissent les anc&amp;ecirc;tres au prince ; synchroniques, o&amp;ugrave; ils contribuent &amp;agrave; renforcer le r&amp;eacute;seau des rapports unissant ce dernier &amp;agrave; ses vassaux et &amp;agrave; ses sujets.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dans sa dimension verticale ou diachronique, le tr&amp;ocirc;ne est per&amp;ccedil;u comme une parcelle de l&amp;#39;univers chtonien, celui des esprits et des morts. Il affirme la r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;ascendance sacr&amp;eacute;e du prince, les liens qui l&amp;#39;unissent aux anc&amp;ecirc;tres fondateurs du clan &amp;mdash; d&amp;eacute;tenteurs ultimes de la terre : ceci explique, notamment, pourquoi il &amp;eacute;tait enduit des graisses des animaux &amp;laquo; tabous &amp;raquo; de la chefferie (&amp;agrave; Buli, l&amp;eacute;opard et crocodile). Gr&amp;acirc;ce au kihona, le pouvoir politique et judiciaire r&amp;eacute;investit l&amp;#39;ordre du sacr&amp;eacute;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La cariatide qui soutient le plateau des bihona figure Kamania, l&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre mythique des Bakunda &amp;mdash; souche de la population de Buli54. Repr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute;e en &amp;eacute;tat de gestation, elle assure la protection du chef de la m&amp;ecirc;me mani&amp;egrave;re qu&amp;#39;une m&amp;egrave;re prot&amp;egrave;ge l&amp;#39;enfant qu&amp;#39;elle porte en elle. Le plateau lui-m&amp;ecirc;me, charg&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;ingr&amp;eacute;dients magiques, est d&amp;#39;ailleurs assimil&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; un ventre (difu), et le tenon cylindrique qui le relie &amp;agrave; la t&amp;ecirc;te de la cariatide, au cordon ombilical msuku55. Inversement, une femme appel&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; assurer la descendance de la lign&amp;eacute;e princi&amp;egrave;re portera le surnom de &amp;laquo; si&amp;egrave;ge &amp;raquo; kihona. L&amp;#39;identification du si&amp;egrave;ge &amp;agrave; la m&amp;egrave;re originelle &amp;eacute;tait telle que l&amp;#39;on pouvait lire sur son &amp;laquo; ventre &amp;raquo; le destin du prince : le devin y versait de l&amp;#39;huile et du kaolin et les figures que prenaient ces ingr&amp;eacute;dients fondaient la s&amp;eacute;miologie des aruspices56.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dans la texture synchronique de ses fonctions, les rapports du prince &amp;agrave; ses sujets, le si&amp;egrave;ge est per&amp;ccedil;u tout d&amp;#39;abord pour le &amp;laquo; double &amp;raquo; de la personne dynastique. Il re&amp;ccedil;oit donc une &amp;eacute;pouse, pr&amp;eacute;pos&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; sa garde et &amp;agrave; ses soins. Le fait de toucher le si&amp;egrave;ge passe pour un crime d&amp;#39;insubordination qui est s&amp;eacute;v&amp;egrave;rement puni. Au contraire, les serments scell&amp;eacute;s la main sur celui-ci rev&amp;ecirc;tent une exceptionnelle gravit&amp;eacute;. Les si&amp;egrave;ges des vassaux du prince sont donn&amp;eacute;s pour les copies du kihona de ce dernier. Ils assurent sa pr&amp;eacute;sence dans tout le royaume, sp&amp;eacute;cialement aux endroits strat&amp;eacute;giques, tels les villages implant&amp;eacute;s aux fronti&amp;egrave;res. Lorsque ces vassaux si&amp;egrave;gent officiellement, ils sont cens&amp;eacute;s n&amp;#39;exercer le pouvoir qu&amp;#39;au nom du prince. Ainsi le tr&amp;ocirc;ne contribue-t-il puissamment &amp;agrave; assurer le maintien du pouvoir entre les mains de la seule famille r&amp;eacute;gnante, d&amp;eacute;tentrice du bulohwe.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le kihona, en combinant la double constellation de symboles et de fonctions qui unissent les morts aux vivants, associe &amp;eacute;galement dans la m&amp;ecirc;me figure le prince et l&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre mythique, et commande l&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute; de leur apparence sensible.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Le destin de l&amp;#39;art aulique de Buli fut donc, selon toute vraisemblance, de se soumettre &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;al d&amp;#39;un r&amp;eacute;alisme de plus en plus exigeant, tendant &amp;agrave; renforcer cette identification. L&amp;#39;hypoth&amp;egrave;se pourrait livrer ce crit&amp;egrave;re taxonomique global qui devrait seul inspirer, pensons-nous, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;volution g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale du style de Buli.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dict&amp;eacute; par la volont&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;accentuer l&amp;#39;omnipr&amp;eacute;sence du prince sur ses &amp;eacute;tats et de donner &amp;agrave; la magie de son apparence, identifi&amp;eacute;e au paradigme imaginaire de l&amp;#39;anc&amp;ecirc;tre fondateur, toute sa pr&amp;eacute;gnance, l&amp;#39;art contribuait ainsi de plus en plus &amp;eacute;troitement &amp;agrave; imposer un mod&amp;egrave;le esth&amp;eacute;tique qui devait servir une s&amp;eacute;miologie plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale r&amp;eacute;pondant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;ologie nationaliste de la cour, marqu&amp;eacute;e par la volont&amp;eacute; de r&amp;eacute;affirmer sans cesse sa l&amp;eacute;gitimit&amp;eacute; et son identit&amp;eacute; et d&amp;#39;imprimer son sceau sur l&amp;#39;ordre culturel tout entier.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Il resterait donc &amp;agrave; montrer, dans une &amp;eacute;tude morphologique et stylistique approfondie, comment la mystique de l&amp;#39;apparence royale, celle de la beaut&amp;eacute; de la m&amp;egrave;re mythique de la dynastie s&amp;#39;est traduite, &amp;agrave; travers la g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogie de deux ou plus vraisemblablement trois sculpteurs, dans des effigies de plus en plus r&amp;eacute;alistes. Comment un art, command&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;origine par les canons de la statuaire kunda et luba, dont l&amp;#39;id&amp;eacute;al esth&amp;eacute;tique r&amp;eacute;sidait dans la qu&amp;ecirc;te permanente de l&amp;#39;essence, s&amp;#39;est rapproch&amp;eacute; du sensible pour se soumettre &amp;agrave; des imp&amp;eacute;ratifs politiques et magiques, sans sombrer toutefois dans l&amp;#39;accessoire, m&amp;ecirc;me lorsqu&amp;#39;il tend vers un certain formalisme, et comment il a su traduire, dans son aust&amp;egrave;re s&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;nit&amp;eacute;, l&amp;#39;une des questions les plus fondamentales de l&amp;#39;homme universel : celle qui regarde l&amp;#39;invisible et la mort.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	NOTES&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cet article, &amp;eacute;crit en 1990, ne tient &amp;eacute;videmment pas compte des objets attribu&amp;eacute;s &amp;agrave; Buli et d&amp;eacute;couverts ult&amp;eacute;rieurement. Relevons que de nombreuses donn&amp;eacute;es historiques recueillies sur le terrain se trouvent confirm&amp;eacute;es par les archives AIMO, relatives &amp;agrave; Buli, conserv&amp;eacute;es aux Minist&amp;egrave;re des Affaires Etrang&amp;egrave;res de Belgique &amp;ndash; consult&amp;eacute;es depuis.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	1. Anvers, 24 d&amp;eacute;c. 1937 au 16 janv. 1938.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	2. Tentoonstelling van Kongo-Kunst... Catalogus. Antwerpsche Propagandendaweken, nos 716 et 717 (voir pl. 14 &amp;amp; 15). L&amp;#39;un de ces si&amp;egrave;ges &amp;mdash; ancienne coll. Bertrand &amp;mdash; est aujourd&amp;#39;hui &amp;agrave; Tervuren. (Bonne reproduction dans E. LEUZINGER, Kunst der Naturv&amp;ocirc;lker, Frankfort/a/Main, 1978, band III, pl. 123).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	3. Pour une bonne reproduction de cette &amp;oelig;uvre c&amp;eacute;l&amp;egrave;bre : (A. MAESEN), Umbangu. Art du Congo au Mus&amp;eacute;e Royal de l&amp;#39;Afrique Centrale, 2e &amp;eacute;d., (Bxl, 1969), pl. 35.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	4. L&amp;#39;Univers des formes. Afrique Noire, Paris, 1967, p. 336.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	5. Sumorn impos&amp;eacute; principalement par J. MAES qui avait cru pouvoir identifier cette sculpture &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;Esprit Kabila, pr&amp;eacute;sidant &amp;agrave; certains rituels priv&amp;eacute;s de mendicit&amp;eacute;, d&amp;eacute;crits par le P. COLLE (J. MAES, Figurines mendiantes des Baluba, dans Pro Medico, 1935, 3 et Figurines mendiantes dites &amp;laquo; Kabila &amp;raquo; des Baluba, dans Brousse, 1939, 2). Pour COLLE : Les Baluba (Congo Belge), Bruxelles, 1913, t. Il, p. 441.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	6. Miroir du Congo belge, Bruxelles-Paris, 1929, t. II, p. 218, 235 et 236.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	7. Les sculptures de l&amp;#39;Afrique Noire, Paris, 1956, p. 110.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	8. Dans Plastiek van Kongo, 1946 (traduit en fran&amp;ccedil;ais par A. MAESEN, Bruxelles, 1959) et D&amp;eacute;couverte de deux statuettes d&amp;#39;un grand sous-style Ba-Luba, dans Institut Royal Colonial Belge. Bull, des s&amp;eacute;ances, XXII, 1, 1951, p. 130-140.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	9. Une &amp;nbsp;sculpture de Buli in&amp;eacute;dite, dans Bull. de la Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; Royale Belge d&amp;#39;Anthropologie et de Pr&amp;eacute;histoire, LXXI, 1960, p. 1-16.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	10. Nous ignorons si cette &amp;oelig;uvre, retrouv&amp;eacute;e voici quelques ann&amp;eacute;es et expos&amp;eacute;e au Metropolitan Mus&amp;eacute;um de New York, a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; &amp;eacute;dit&amp;eacute;e. Un moulage s&amp;#39;en trouve au Mus&amp;eacute;e de Tervuren. Sur Fr. MIOT, voir E. JANSSENS et A. CATEAUX, Les Belges au Congo, Anvers, 1911, II, p. 87-90 (avec la liste de ses publications) et Biographie coloniale belge, Bruxelles, V, 1958, col. 599-61.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	11. Nous avons identifi&amp;eacute; cette sculpture, toujours in&amp;eacute;dite, en 1976.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	12. Nous remercions nos coll&amp;egrave;gues de l&amp;#39;Institut de Zoologie de l&amp;#39;ULg. de nous avoir aid&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; identifier ces &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	13. Kabwelulu est parfois d&amp;eacute;crit comme le g&amp;eacute;nie des &amp;laquo; sorciers &amp;raquo; du Buhabo. Mais buhabo est un terme g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rique qui d&amp;eacute;signe plusieurs soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s initiatiques.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	14. Voir Du neuf sur le Ma&amp;icirc;tre de Buli, dans Topafrica. Mensuel panafricain, 1975, 2, p. 41, 42, 48. Cette &amp;oelig;uvre se trouve &amp;agrave; pr&amp;eacute;sent, dans la collection du comte B. de GRUNNE.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	15. La grande statuaire Hemba du Za&amp;iuml;re, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1977, p. 320 et 321. Le P. Neyt y consigne une tradition selon laquelle le nom du sculpteur &amp;eacute;tait &amp;laquo; Ngongo ya Chintu &amp;raquo;. L&amp;#39;une des traductions possibles de ce &amp;laquo; nom &amp;raquo; est &amp;laquo; le fabricant de la chose &amp;raquo;. Il pourrait donc s&amp;#39;agir d&amp;#39;un sobriquet, voilant mal un anonymat r&amp;eacute;el.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	16. Note sur un type de kifwebe luba-hemba, dans Revue Universitaire du Burundi, I, 3/4, 1973, p. 255-261 &amp;agrave; compl&amp;eacute;ter par L&amp;#39;art hemba, dans Topafrica. Mensuel panafricain, 1975, 5, p. 46-48.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	17. P&amp;egrave;re de Kalala llunga, fondateur du second empire luba. La l&amp;eacute;gende rapporte que lorsqu&amp;#39;il se mettait en col&amp;egrave;re, tout, autour de lui, prenait la couleur rouge. Il existe des si&amp;egrave;ges de Buli o&amp;ugrave; le plateau est soutenu par un couple. Dans ce cas, le personnage masculin est identifi&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; Mbdyi Kiluwe ou Kalala llunga. Parfois, il est simplement appel&amp;eacute; Mkulu wa Kalakala, soit &amp;laquo; l&amp;#39;ancien des tout premiers temps &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	18. Le si&amp;egrave;ge &amp;agrave; cariatide agenouill&amp;eacute;e du British Museum &amp;eacute;tait autrefois rev&amp;ecirc;tu des m&amp;ecirc;mes parures (voir OLBRECHTS, op. cit., 1946). Il en a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; depuis d&amp;eacute;pouill&amp;eacute; (voir LEIRIS, op. cit. p. 110).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	19. La coiffe du si&amp;egrave;ge publi&amp;eacute; ici, constitu&amp;eacute;e par quatre vastes lobes, n&amp;#39;est pas orn&amp;eacute;e, &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;arri&amp;egrave;re, de la tresse cruciforme que l&amp;#39;on observe sur un certain nombre d&amp;#39;&amp;oelig;uvres de Buli. Elle s&amp;#39;apparente davantage au type de coiffures observ&amp;eacute; par Fo&amp;agrave;, au sud-est de Buli, qu&amp;#39;il compare &amp;agrave; une &amp;laquo; marmite dont le fond serait appliqu&amp;eacute; sur la nuque et dont le bord s&amp;#39;en irait en arri&amp;egrave;re : de derri&amp;egrave;re, on voit un trou noir qui correspond &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;rieur du r&amp;eacute;cipient &amp;raquo;. (Voir Travers&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;Afrique..., Paris, 1900, p. 163 et photo, p. 248 et R&amp;eacute;sultats scientifiques des voyages en Afrique d&amp;#39;Ed. Fo&amp;agrave;, Paris, 1908, p. 264 et 265). Autre point de divergence : les tatouages corporels qui pour ce si&amp;egrave;ge sont d&amp;#39;inspiration nettement luba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	20. Op. cit., p. 15 et 16.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	21. Voir successivement : The Tribal Image, London, 1970, n&amp;deg; 41, et Sculptures africaines, Paris, 1965, p. 103.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	22. Op. cit., t. II, p. 795.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	23. Par exemple, le fait que la coiffe se trouve souvent d&amp;eacute;jet&amp;eacute;e vers la gauche (du personnage sculpt&amp;eacute;). Mais nos informateurs nous ont fait remarquer qu&amp;#39;il s&amp;#39;agissait plus vraisemblablement d&amp;#39;une mode relevant d&amp;#39;une forme de coquetterie.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	24. Nous tenons &amp;agrave; exprimer ici notre gratitude &amp;agrave; Mme Gu&amp;eacute;bels, aujourd&amp;#39;hui disparue, qui nous a ouvert le tr&amp;egrave;s riche fonds de ses archives. Signalons que L. GUEBELS poss&amp;eacute;dait un exemplaire du n&amp;deg; de Brousse, contenant l&amp;#39;article de J. MAES, d&amp;eacute;crit en note 5. Sur L. GUEBELS, voir notamment Biographie belge d&amp;#39;Outre-Mer, Bruxelles, VIIb, 1977, p. 165 et 166.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	25. Sur H. BURE, voir Biographie coloniale belge, Bruxelles, IV, 1955, p. 79-81.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	26. Sur Ch. FIRKET, voir Biographie coloniale belge, Bruxelles, I, 1948, p. 375-377. Le catalogue de ses collections est conserv&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge sous la cote Mss 2823b.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	27. Nous songeons notamment &amp;agrave; une collection de b&amp;acirc;tons de messager songye. Il faut relever du reste, que les centres o&amp;ugrave; l&amp;#39;on fabriquait des &amp;laquo; objets pour les Blancs &amp;raquo; &amp;eacute;taient &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque, d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; nombreux.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	28. Note sur la population de la Lukuga. Extraite de son Journal, dans Le Mouvement G&amp;eacute;ographique, 17 mars 1895, p. 93 et 94.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	29. Op. cit., p. 321.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	30. A rapprocher d&amp;#39;une l&amp;eacute;gende que les Babembe de l&amp;#39;Itombwe, o&amp;ugrave; le gorille est toujours pr&amp;eacute;sent, nous ont rapport&amp;eacute;e : l&amp;agrave;, pour &amp;eacute;viter la servitude arabe, le grand singe aurait cess&amp;eacute; de parler.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	31. Fr.-M. OLBRECHTS notamment, estimant que le visage des figures de Buli n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait &amp;laquo; nullement n&amp;eacute;gro&amp;iuml;de &amp;raquo;, soutient que l&amp;#39;artiste s&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tait &amp;laquo; sans aucun doute &amp;raquo; inspir&amp;eacute; &amp;laquo; d&amp;#39;un mod&amp;egrave;le ayant du sang hamite dans les veines &amp;raquo; (Op. cit., 1951, p. 132). La th&amp;egrave;se &amp;laquo; hamitique &amp;raquo;, a peu pr&amp;egrave;s abandonn&amp;eacute;e aujourd&amp;#39;hui, &amp;eacute;tait r&amp;eacute;guli&amp;egrave;rement all&amp;eacute;gu&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;ethnographie du pass&amp;eacute;, pour &amp;laquo; expliquer &amp;raquo; ce qui lui semblait &amp;eacute;chapper &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;univers bantou dont elle avait &amp;eacute;labor&amp;eacute; des images souvent contestables. Sur les &amp;laquo; inqui&amp;eacute;tudes &amp;raquo; que suscitaient d&amp;eacute;j&amp;agrave; les th&amp;egrave;ses auxquelles se r&amp;eacute;f&amp;egrave;re OLBRECHTS (celles d&amp;#39;un certain VON EICKSTEDT, auteur d&amp;#39;une Rassenkunde... der Menschheit (1934)), voir H. BAUMANN et D. WESTERMANN, Peuples et Civilisations de l&amp;#39;Afrique, Paris, nvle &amp;eacute;d. 1948, p. 23.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	32. Sur ce personnage, voir A. DELCOMMUNE, Vingt ann&amp;eacute;es de vie africaine, Bruxelles, 1922, t. 2, p. 538 et sv. et ED. VERDICK, Les premiers jours du Katanga, Elisabethville, 1952, p. 36 et ss.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	33. Op. cit., p. 94.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	34. Op. cit., t. II, p. 531.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	35. Voir The Fall of the Congo Arabs, London, 1897, p. 259 &amp;agrave; 261 : &amp;laquo; Their carving in wood and ivory is really beautiful, and I was fortunate in being abler in get to England some fine specimens in the shape of paddels, walking-sticks, and axes handles, wich are now in the British Museum &amp;raquo;. HINDE a laiss&amp;eacute; plusieurs versions de son exp&amp;eacute;dition qui diff&amp;egrave;rent sur le point g&amp;eacute;ographique exact de sa d&amp;eacute;couverte. Dans l&amp;#39;une de ces versions (Mouvement G&amp;eacute;ographique, 25 mai 1895, p. 150), il d&amp;eacute;clare avoir r&amp;eacute;colt&amp;eacute; ces objets &amp;agrave; Katulu, village d&amp;eacute;pendant en effet de Buli. Mais par ailleurs, le British Museum ne poss&amp;egrave;de qu&amp;#39;une seule sculpture relevant du &amp;laquo; style Buli &amp;raquo; : le si&amp;egrave;ge &amp;agrave; cariatide auquel il est fait allusion n. 18. Celui-ci est entr&amp;eacute; au Mus&amp;eacute;e en 1905.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	36. R.J. CORNET, Maniema. Le pays des mangeurs d&amp;#39;hommes, Bruxelles, 1952, p. 218 et 219. Nous ne partageons pas l&amp;#39;avis de Cornet (voir n. 35). Selon nous, l&amp;rsquo; &amp;laquo; inventeur &amp;raquo; de l&amp;#39;art de Buli demeure Fr. MIOT.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	37. Outre HINDE, voir aussi R. MOHUN, Sur le Congo, dans le Mouvement G&amp;eacute;ographique, 30 sept. 1894, p. 84-87.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	38. Voir Historique de la Chefferie de Kabongo, 20 oct. 1914, p. 7-9 (Mss in&amp;eacute;dit, d&amp;ucirc; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;administrateur territorial DAMOISEAUX). (Archives de l&amp;#39;auteur).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	39. Voir OLBRECHTS, op. cit., 1951. Fo&amp;agrave; ne dit rien de ces deux statuettes. Elles se trouvent actuellement &amp;agrave; Tervuren.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	40. Op. cit., 1900, p. 164 et ss.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	41. Nombreux t&amp;eacute;moignages chez les voyageurs et surtout les missionnaires. Voir en particulier le Bulletin des Missions d&amp;#39;Afrique des P&amp;egrave;res Blancs et Le Messager du Saint-Esprit de ces ann&amp;eacute;es.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	42. G. VAN DER KERKEN, Note g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale sur le recrutement dans le Tanganika-Mo&amp;euml;ro. (c. 1916. Mss de 16 p. in&amp;eacute;dit. Archives de l&amp;#39;auteur).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	43. Buli fut capitale du secteur du Tanganyika-Mo&amp;euml;ro jusqu&amp;#39;en 1912, date o&amp;ugrave; elle fut d&amp;eacute;tr&amp;ocirc;n&amp;eacute;e au profit de Kongolo. Son nom commen&amp;ccedil;a d&amp;egrave;s lors &amp;agrave; dispara&amp;icirc;tre des cartes.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	44. Outre les &amp;eacute;tudes bien connues de COLLE, BURTON, etc. voir aussi A. VAN DER NOOT, La secte des Bambudi, dans Bulletin des Juridictions Indig&amp;egrave;nes, sept. 1935, p. 113 et ss.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	45. Etude sur les m&amp;oelig;urs et les coutumes des Baluba des r&amp;eacute;gions de Kabongo, 1916, p. 25 et sv. (Mss. in&amp;eacute;dit. Archives de l&amp;#39;auteur).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	46. Op. cit., t. II, p. 542-567.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	47. Op. cit., t. II, p. 847.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	48. Sur ce point, voir surtout le P. TH. THEUWS, Textes Luba, dans Bulletin trimestriel du CEPSI, 27, 1954, p. 10, 49 et ss.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	49. Dictionnaire Kiluba-Fran&amp;ccedil;ais, Tervuren, 1954, p. 76 et 77.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	50. Liste des objets c&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;s par Bure au Baron de Hauleville, cit. d&amp;#39;apr&amp;egrave;s W. MESTACH, op cit. p. 7. L&amp;rsquo;usage d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute; par Kanunu pour le mboko est confirm&amp;eacute; par Van Avermaete, op.cit. s.v.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	51. La demeure d&amp;#39;un &amp;nbsp;&amp;laquo; grand chef &amp;raquo; luba comportait cinq cases principales dont celle dite kobo, &amp;eacute;tait r&amp;eacute;serv&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; ses mikisi (esprits et effigies des anc&amp;ecirc;tres). Une fois construit, le kobo re&amp;ccedil;oit en hommage une coupe de terre blanche (mboko) et de perles. Apr&amp;egrave;s un certain temps, on y d&amp;eacute;pose aussi &amp;laquo; un r&amp;eacute;cipient du &amp;lsquo;malafou&amp;rsquo; (de sorgho) que le chef re&amp;ccedil;oit de ses sujets ; il y passera la nuit enti&amp;egrave;re et ne sera bu que le lendemain matin. Ceci sera surtout fait avant la mise &amp;agrave; ex&amp;eacute;cution d&amp;#39;un projet, le malafou ayant repos&amp;eacute; une nuit enti&amp;egrave;re aupr&amp;egrave;s des &amp;lsquo;Mikisi&amp;rsquo; aura une influence heureuse sur la r&amp;eacute;alisation de ce dernier &amp;raquo; (Etudes sur les m&amp;oelig;urs... des Luba, cit. p. 15).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	52. W.G. RANDLES, L&amp;#39;ancien royaume du Congo, Paris, 1968, p. 29 et ss.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	53. Sur le r&amp;ocirc;le des figures royales Ndop, voir BELEPE BOPE MABINTCH, Les &amp;oelig;uvres d&amp;#39;art plastiques, t&amp;eacute;moins des civilisations africaines traditionnelles, dans La civilisation ancienne des peuples des Grands Lacs, Paris-Bujumbura, 1981, p. 452-463.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	54. La cariatide agenouill&amp;eacute;e de certains des si&amp;egrave;ges de Buli ne repr&amp;eacute;senterait pas Kamania, selon nos informateurs. Au contraire, elle serait l&amp;#39;image de la femme demandant &amp;agrave; Dieu d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre f&amp;eacute;conde, dans l&amp;#39;attitude rituelle de l&amp;#39;oraison. Ces si&amp;egrave;ges n&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;taient donc pas destin&amp;eacute;s au chefs sacr&amp;eacute;s balohwe, mais &amp;agrave; de simples vassaux.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	55. Msuku d&amp;eacute;signe &amp;eacute;galement, par m&amp;eacute;tonymie, la &amp;laquo; g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;alogie &amp;raquo;, l&amp;#39;&amp;laquo; ascendance &amp;raquo;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	56. Sur la mystique de l&amp;#39;ascendance maternelle, voir notamment le P. BURTON, L&amp;#39;organisation sociale des Baluba, dans Revue des juridictions indig&amp;egrave;nes, janv.-f&amp;eacute;v. 1936, p. 150-153. Un mulohwe ne pouvait r&amp;eacute;gner sans sa m&amp;egrave;re. Lorsque celle-ci mourrait, une autre femme, dite nginabanza, assumait juridiquement et anthropologiquement son r&amp;ocirc;le. Il pouvait &amp;eacute;galement se faire qu&amp;#39;un mulohwe se r&amp;eacute;incarne dans une femme, dite mwadi. Dans ce cas, le chef vivant risquait de se voir mis &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;cart par celle-ci. L&amp;#39;on con&amp;ccedil;oit que lors d&amp;#39;une rupture de succession, au sein d&amp;#39;un m&amp;ecirc;me lignage matrilin&amp;eacute;aire, la transmission du si&amp;egrave;ge sacr&amp;eacute;, charg&amp;eacute; de la magie d&amp;#39;une m&amp;egrave;re sans descendant, puisse poser de r&amp;eacute;els probl&amp;egrave;mes. Il arrivait donc que l&amp;#39;on en remplace le plateau sup&amp;eacute;rieur (&amp;laquo; ventre &amp;raquo;), selon une technique assez simple que nous d&amp;eacute;crivons dans une &amp;eacute;tude plus g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale sur les &amp;laquo; Techniques de la sculpture chez les populations de l&amp;#39;est du Za&amp;iuml;re &amp;raquo; (&amp;agrave; para&amp;icirc;tre).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Copyright text &amp;copy; 2006 Pol Pierre Gossiaux&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pr&amp;eacute;alablement publi&amp;eacute; dans Art et exotisme, Revue des historiens de l&amp;#39;art, des arch&amp;eacute;ologues, des musicologues&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;et des orientalistes de l&amp;#39;Universit&amp;eacute; de Li&amp;egrave;ge, n&amp;deg; 9, 1990, p. 38-49.&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Sun, 25 Sep 2011 17:53:23 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Armand Auxiètre</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Cno_article%2C66%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
         <description>&lt;span class=&quot;TexteArticleParDefaut&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;tgt_para&quot;&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_41&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre always bathed in the world of the collection.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_42&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Hisgrandfather and his father before him constituted, according to timeand discoveries, a collection of many and various objects, ancient books and objects coming from all parts of Africa.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_43&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;During his youth, Armand evolves in a particular world, where he educates his look naturally.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_44&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Havingcrossed several certificates of cabinetmaking, he crosses successfullyhis certificate of the jobs of art to the Ecole Boulle, and developsat the same time his knowledge in african art.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_45&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;The attraction between the african sculpture and Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre is first plastic, immediate, obvious.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_46&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;A love was born, which will be developed in the course of meetings, discoveries and of readings.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_47&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Soonthe pleasure of being encircled with items becoming too big to resistthe desire to share this passion, Armand takes back the ancientbookshop of his grandmother, and perpetuates the family presenceinitiated in the fifties in 41, street of Verneuil, by creating thegallery &quot;L'Oeil et la Main&quot;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_48&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Thename of the gallery is chosen as a tribute to the job of the artists,mostly unknown in the field of african traditional art, who createand give life to material by the joint by means of their look and the hands.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_49&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Temporaryexhibitions are regularly organised and give the occasion to offer to the look of the amateurs, experts or not, objects answering continuouslyupdated themes. &lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;tgt_50&quot; onmouseout=&quot;OnMouseLeaveSpan(this)&quot; onmouseover=&quot;OnMouseOverSpanTran(this,event)&quot;&gt;Locatedin historical Paris and in a building with an ancient charm, Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre's gallery&amp;nbsp; introduces a selection of works of art of a high plasticquality, which it makes good consider for a long time.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;african art / art africain / primitive art / art primitif / artspremiers / art gallery / art tribal / tribal art / Afrique / Africa /l'oeil et la main / galerie d'art premier / achat / vente / expertise /expert / exposition / exhibition / collection / collectionneur / Paris/ oeuvre / Verneuil / antiquit&amp;eacute;s / antiquaire / mus&amp;eacute;e / museum / masque/ mask / statue / sculpture / Agalom / Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre /www.african-paris.com / www.agalom.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Sat, 13 Dec 2008 17:49:18 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Un expert, une ½uvre : Statue fétiche Songye</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FUn%2Bexpert-vi-%2Bune%2B%25C2%25BDuvre%2B%253A%2BStatue%2Bf%25C3%25A9tiche%2BSongye-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;h3 style=&quot;margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; color: black; font-size: 14px; background-color: rgb(243, 243, 243); &quot;&gt;	Un expert, une &amp;oelig;uvre : Statue f&amp;eacute;tiche Songye&lt;/h3&gt;&lt;object width=&quot;400&quot; height=&quot;330&quot; codebase=&quot;http://download.macromedia.com/pub/shockwave/cabs/flash/swflash.cab#version=9,0,0,0&quot; id=&quot;player_deported&quot; classid=&quot;clsid:d27cdb6e-ae6d-11cf-96b8-444553540000&quot;&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;always&quot; name=&quot;allowScriptAccess&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv/swf/player_v2.swf&quot; name=&quot;movie&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;true&quot; name=&quot;allowFullScreen&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;wmode&quot; name=&quot;transparent&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;high&quot; name=&quot;quality&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;#000000&quot; name=&quot;bgcolor&quot;/&gt;&lt;param value=&quot;xmlMedia=http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv/xml/1043&amp;tvName=connaissance-des-arts&amp;tvUrl=http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv&amp;isDeported=true&quot; name=&quot;flashvars&quot;/&gt;&lt;embed width=&quot;400&quot; height=&quot;330&quot; pluginspage=&quot;http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer&quot;  type=&quot;application/x-shockwave-flash&quot; flashvars=&quot;xmlMedia=http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv/xml/1043&amp;tvName=connaissance-des-arts&amp;tvUrl=http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv&amp;isDeported=true&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot;  quality=&quot;high&quot; allowfullscreen=&quot;true&quot; allowscriptaccess=&quot;always&quot; id=&quot;player_deported&quot; wmode=&quot;transparent&quot;  name=&quot;smartplayer_object&quot; src=&quot;http://www.connaissancedesarts.tv/swf/player_v2.swf&quot;/&gt;&lt;/object&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 16 Sep 2011 16:20:54 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>IFE</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FIFE-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,93,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,802.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/FCBA.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 591px; height: 750px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/fcba1.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 569px; height: 750px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/fcbaarmand.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 599px; height: 750px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/fcbactbaife.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 582px; height: 747px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/fcbaauxietreife2.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 574px; height: 750px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/fcbactbaifetete.JPG&quot; style=&quot;width: 518px; height: 747px; &quot; /&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Mon, 05 Sep 2011 18:48:17 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Armand Auxiètre</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Cno_article%2C175%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,133,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,175.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot; /&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre always bathed in the universe of the collection. His grandfather and his father before him constituted, progressively time and discoveries, a collection of many and varied objects, from the old books to the objects coming from all the parts of Africa. Since he was young, Armand evolves in a particular universe, in which he educates his glance naturally. After having passed several diplomas of cabinet-making, he passed successfully its diploma of trade at the Ecole Boulle, and develops its knowledge in African art in parallel. The attraction between the african sculpture and Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre is initially plastic, immediate, obvious. A love was born, which will be developed with the wire of the meetings, discovered and the readings. Soon pleasure of being surrounded by works of art becoming too large to resist the urge to share this passion, Armand takes again the old bookshop of his grandmother, and perpetuates the family presence initiated in the Fifties at the 41 rue de Verneuil, by creating the gallery &quot; L' Oeil et la Main&quot;. The name of the gallery is a tribute to the work of the artists, most of the time anonymous in the traditional african art, which creates and gives life to the material with their glance and their hands. Temporary exhibitions are regularly organized and offer the occasion to propose to the amateurs, experts or not, works of art answering to an unceasingly reactualized set of themes. Located in the historical Paris, in an old charm building, Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre's gallery presents a selection of works of a plastic high-quality, which are good to contemplate lengthily.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;african art / art africain / primitiveart / art primitif / arts premiers / art gallery / art tribal / tribalart / l'oeil et la main / galerie d'art premier / Agalom / ArmandAuxi&amp;egrave;tre / www.african-paris.com / www.agalom.com&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 20 Feb 2009 15:31:56 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Lulua</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FLulua-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/lulua.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 900px; height: 1350px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;lulua mask collection A Auxietre&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;A la Galerie l&amp;#39;Oeil et la Main&lt;br /&gt;Septembre 2011&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;Exposition MASTERPIECES</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 02 Sep 2011 16:16:46 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Kota</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FKota-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,96,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,800.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/kotareliquairegabon-2.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 2067px; height: 3080px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;KOTA RELIQUAIRE GABON&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/kotareliquairegabon-3.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 1803px; height: 3174px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;KOTA RELIQUAIRE GABON&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/kotareliquairegabon-7.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 2592px; height: 3888px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;KOTA RELIQUAIRE GABON</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 02 Sep 2011 13:51:32 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>MASTERPIECES</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FMASTERPIECES-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,205,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,552.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;img alt=&quot;&quot; src=&quot;/fichiers/masterpiecemasterpieces.jpg&quot; style=&quot;width: 990px; height: 1400px; &quot; /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;MASTERPIECES&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;MASTERPIECES&lt;br /&gt;La galerie d&amp;#39;Art Primitif - L&amp;#39;Oeil et la Main, vous invite &amp;agrave; son vernissage de l&amp;#39;exposition MASTERPIECES pendant le Carr&amp;eacute; Rive Gauche&lt;br /&gt;Le Jeudi 26 Mai 2011 &amp;agrave; partir de 18h30&lt;br /&gt;Du jeudi 26 Mai au Jeudi 29 Septembre 2011</description>
         <pubDate>Tue, 07 Jun 2011 12:14:20 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Anthologie des arts africains au XXe siècle</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FAnthologie%2Bdes%2Barts%2Bafricains%2Bau%2BXXe%2Bsi%25C3%25A8cle-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,196,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,576.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; line-height: 32px; &quot;&gt;	&lt;font color=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; face=&quot;Arial&quot;&gt;N&amp;#39;Gon&amp;eacute; Fall et Jean Loup Pivin&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; line-height: 32px; &quot;&gt;	&lt;font color=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; face=&quot;Arial&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;u&gt;Anthologie des arts africains au XXe si&amp;egrave;cle&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; &quot;&gt;	&lt;font color=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; face=&quot;Arial&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;D&amp;eacute;tails sur le produit&lt;/u&gt;:&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; &quot;&gt;	&lt;font color=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; face=&quot;Arial&quot;&gt;Reli&amp;eacute;: 408 pages - Editeur: Revue Noire (15 juin 2002) - Langue: Fran&amp;ccedil;ais&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;	ISBN-10: 2909571343 - ISBN-13: 978-2909571348&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;justify&quot; style=&quot;margin-top: 1px; margin-right: 20px; margin-bottom: 1px; margin-left: 20px; &quot;&gt;	&lt;font color=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; face=&quot;Arial&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Pr&amp;eacute;sentation de l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;diteur&lt;/u&gt;:&lt;br /&gt;	Le livre r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence de l&amp;#39;art moderne africain des autodidactes du d&amp;eacute;but du XXe si&amp;egrave;cle, des &amp;eacute;coles d&amp;#39;art, des mouvements picturaux des manifestations, et l&amp;#39;apparition depuis 1990 d&amp;#39;artistes africains reconnus mondialement. Le panorama qui permet de mieux comprendre l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;volution actuelle mondiale.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Tue, 09 Aug 2011 20:08:23 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>BANTU PHILOSOPHY</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FBANTU%2BPHILOSOPHY-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Full text, digitalised by Lies Strijker and presented by the&amp;nbsp;.Centre Aequatoria&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;em&gt;Notes on the digitalisation and presentation&lt;/em&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	[Cover]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	[1: empty]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	[2]&lt;br /&gt;	IMPRIMI POTEST&lt;br /&gt;	Kanzenze, 12-2-1952&lt;br /&gt;	P. Simeon, o.m.f.&lt;br /&gt;	Sup. Reg.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	IMPRIMATUR&lt;br /&gt;	Luabo-Kamina, 30-5-1952&lt;br /&gt;	+VICTOR PETRUS KEUPPENS&lt;br /&gt;	Vic. Ap. de Lulua&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	[3]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;	&lt;strong&gt;BANTU PHILOSOPHY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	by&lt;br /&gt;	The Revd. Father PLACIDE TEMPELS&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	(Translated into English from &amp;quot;La Philosophie Bantoue&amp;quot; the French Version by Dr. A. Rubbens of Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; original work. The Revd. Colin King, M.A. Translator.)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	With a Foreword to the English Edition by Dr Margaret Read, C.B.E.Ph. D.,M.A., formerly Professor of Education and Head of the Department Of Education in Tropical Areas, The University of London Institute of Education.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	IMPRIMATUR&lt;br /&gt;	Victor&amp;nbsp;Petrus Keuppens&lt;br /&gt;	Vic. Ap. de Lulua&lt;br /&gt;	Luabo-Kamina, 30-5-1952&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Pr&amp;eacute;sence Africaine&lt;br /&gt;	42, rue Descartes-Paris&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	[4]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;copy; Copyright by Pr&amp;eacute;sence Africaine, 1959&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	[no page number]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;img height=&quot;622&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Baluba.GIF&quot; width=&quot;484&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;		Parade-axe. Wooden-handle. Plate in wrought iron.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		Hght. 0.34 cm.&lt;br /&gt;		BALUBA. Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;		Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;	[5]&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;blockquote&gt;		&lt;blockquote&gt;			&lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;				&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot; size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Rev. PLACIDE TEMPELS&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/div&gt;		&lt;/blockquote&gt;		&lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;		&lt;blockquote&gt;			&lt;blockquote&gt;				&lt;blockquote&gt;					&lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;						&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+2&quot;&gt;BANTU&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/div&gt;				&lt;/blockquote&gt;				&lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;					&lt;font size=&quot;+2&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;PHILOSOPHY&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/div&gt;			&lt;/blockquote&gt;		&lt;/blockquote&gt;	&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;img height=&quot;174&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/CollectionAfricaine.GIF&quot; width=&quot;358&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;	[7]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;strong&gt;FOREWORD to the English Translation&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	The Rev. Colin King has, in this translation of Father Tempels&amp;#39; study of Bantu philosophy, conferred a great benefit on those students of African life and thought who use the English language for reading. Ever since I saw the French edition published by Lovania in 1945, I have recommended the study to all who could use it in French. I have memories, too, of more than one African or Sudanese or Chinese student, who did not read French, sitting beside an English fellow student in the little seminar room under the roof, while they worked together on the ideas put forward by Father Tempels with such intimate knowledge and eloquence. Every year, in the seminar to which Mr. King refers, someone raises a question touching on the philosophic thought of African peoples. When they are referred to Father Tempels&amp;#39; study, there has often been dismay because it has only been available in French. Mr. King himself, as he says in his Translator&amp;#39;s Note, worked on an English translation for his own continuous use and very generously made it available for use by others in the Department in which he holds at present a post as lecturer.&lt;br /&gt;	It was clear, however, that for the English speaking world there was a great need to have access to this study, and all of us who have made use of it in the past will welcome the fact that an English edition is now available.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	MARGARET READ&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Professor of Education.&lt;br /&gt;	Head of the Department of Education in Tropical Areas,&lt;br /&gt;	University of London Institute of Education.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	August, 1953.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;	[8]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;strong&gt;NOTE by the English Translator&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;quot;La Philosophie Bantoue&amp;quot; was first published by Lovania at Elizabethville, in the Belgian Congo, in 1945, and was a French translation made by Dr. A. Rubbens. Copies of this version of the work became very difficult to obtain because those who had been able to snap them up in the short time during which they were available were mostly scholars who constantly needed their copies for their own use or for the use of their pupils. To some extent this situation was relieved by the publication by De Sikkel in Antwerp of the original Dutch text and of a revised French translation, also by Dr. A. Rubbens, in the Collection Pr&amp;eacute;sence Africaine in Paris.&lt;br /&gt;	It was my original intention merely to make a private translation for my own edification and for consultation by students in the Colonial Department (now the Department of Education in Tropical Areas) of the Institute of Education at London University, where my introduction to the work in Dr. Margaret Read&amp;#39;s Advanced Seminar for the Study of Society was one of many invaluable benefits thence derived. At that time I had access to the first French translation only.&lt;br /&gt;	When I had got so far, it was impressed upon me that a published English translation was widely and urgently needed. I was able to secure copies of the original Dutch and of the revised French versions; and when the Revd. Father Tempels very kindly accepted my offer of my English translation, he gave me invaluable guidance in the necessary revision. The present translation has taken cognizance of the original Dutch and the revised French versions; and it also incorporates many details supplied by Fr. Tempels and now appearing for the first time. While thus most gratefully acknowledging all that Fr. Tempels has put into this translation, I must also pay [9] tribute to a great deal of help with the Dutch text from Mr. J.L. Pretorius, who is both a Dutch scholar (which I am not) and also an experienced educational missionary among the Bantu. He was able to explain to me many matters of Bantu usage upon which I was ignorant or doubtful.&lt;br /&gt;	There are inevitable difficulties in translating Bantu philosophy into European terminology, and Fr. Tempels&amp;#39;own Dutch original is itself necessarily in part a translation. The problem is referred to by Fr. Tempels himself in Chapter II (p. 26).&lt;br /&gt;	There are often linguistic problems of terminology. One concerns the selection of the word to be used to translate the French &amp;ldquo;la force&amp;rdquo; and &amp;ldquo;force vitale&amp;rdquo;, used to denote the Bantu basic concept of the ultimate nature of being, as we should call it. The Dutch version uses two words, &amp;ldquo; kracht&amp;rdquo; and &amp;ldquo; sterkte&amp;rdquo;, both alone and in combination with &amp;ldquo;levens&amp;rdquo;, but both are rendered by the French &amp;ldquo;force&amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;	Another relates to many references to Africans in the book. My general rude has been to speak of &amp;ldquo; Africans&amp;rdquo; whenever I could not with assured accuracy speak of &amp;ldquo;Bantu&amp;rdquo;. On p. 146, where I had no option but to use &amp;ldquo;Black Race&amp;rdquo;, I italicised it. I dislike the terms &amp;ldquo;native(s)&amp;rdquo;, &amp;ldquo;primitive&amp;rdquo;, and, still more, &amp;ldquo;savages&amp;rdquo;. The last is employed (in italics) only in a context which shows that Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; dislike of the term is as great as my own. For the rest, I hardly imagine that any reader of this translation will think that either Fr. Tempels or I entertain the least derogatory thought in respect of people (or peoples) not of the &amp;ldquo; White race&amp;rdquo;. It is my hope that this translation will assist many to find, in the stimulating thought of Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; work, a key to a fuller understanding of African peoples and a deeper grasp of the truth that the true philosophy is that which both accepts and rejects all philosophies ; but, in regard to peoples, rejects none: accepting all as they are and as they will become.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	[10] [Empty]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;	[11]&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;strong&gt;PREFACE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	My excellent friend, the Revd. Father Placide Tempels, has asked me for a short preface. I cannot do better than to reproduce the following passage from a letter which I received from him when I had just ended my short colonial career.&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;ldquo;It is a curious fact that it was many challenging statements and casts of thought in your &amp;ldquo;Elements of Negro Customary Law&amp;ldquo; that obliged me to concretize and synthetize my own thought.&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;ldquo;I felt baffled, not because the Elements which you treat are false, but because, raising so profoundly the real question at issue and examining it, they wander round the point a little unlil the last moment and do not drive the nail right home.&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;ldquo;When you wrote to me &amp;ldquo;What then do you regard as the African way of synthesizing ideas?&amp;rdquo; you were feeling the lacuna or imperfection in your own conceptions, your own discoveries. Without this lacuna I should certainly never have sought to develop this synthesis as I have&amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;	&amp;ldquo;Tribal law, primitive philosophy and an applied catechism will become, I believe, a trio of inseparables&amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;	Already, he wrote to me, certain Missionaries were using with the greatest success principles of life drawn from Bantu ways of thinking.&lt;br /&gt;	It would be false modesty on our part not to see that ethnology, ethnological principles, ethnological jurisprudence and the religious instruction of patriarchal peoples will derive a new and a fresh orientation by reason of the Revd. Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; work.&lt;br /&gt;	Up to the present, ethnographers have denied all abstract thought to tribal peoples. The civilized Christian European was exalted, the savage and pagan primitive man was denigrated. Out of this concept a theory of colonisation was born which now threatens to fail everywhere.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;	[12] A true estimate of indigenous peoples can now take the place of the misunderstanding and fanaticism of the ethnology of the past and of the former attitude of aversion entertained with regard to them.&lt;br /&gt;	That is why this present work by the Revd. Fr. Tempels is destined to achieve so much good. It will mark a new epoch in the history of colonisation. Europe will only enhance its prestige by admitting, in the light of Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; thought, its former ethnological mistakes.&lt;br /&gt;	Since the Greeks, all classical European philosophy has revealed a static outlook. But older peoples, tribal peoples as I call them - since, whether they are patrilineal or matrilineal, they are all patriarchal - have preserved a mental outlook not purely static. We have behind us two thousand years of too static thought. Prof. Mar&amp;eacute;chal, some years ago, ended his study of Kant as follows:&amp;rdquo; The future metaphysics will be either dynamic or it will not be at all&amp;rdquo;.&lt;br /&gt;	We await a neo-Thomism, with Mercier, Maritain and many others who are seeking a modern Thomism. Without a system of thought, philosophical and personal, attaining that exactly, no objectivity in ethnography is possible.&lt;br /&gt;	It is precisely from this standpoint that the Rev. Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; work throws such remarkable light on ethnography to-day and will so remarkably illumine colonial practice and missionary evangelization tomorrow.&lt;br /&gt;	We are in with him on the ground floor of modern thought.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Brussels, 20th July, 1945.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	E. Possoz.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;		[no page number]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;627&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Mask.GIF&quot; width=&quot;460&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Mask surmounted by animal form,&lt;br /&gt;			Hght 0.52 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			Bayaka, Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;		[13]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER I&lt;br /&gt;		IN SEARCH OF A BANTU PHILOSOPHY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;1. Life and death determine human behaviour.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		It has been often remarked that an European who has given up, during his life, all practice of the Christian religion, quickly returns to a Christian viewpoint when suffering or pain raise the problem of the preservation and survival or the loss and destruction of his being. Many sceptics turn, in their last moments, to seek in the ancient Christian teaching of the West, the practical answer to the problem of redemption or destruction. Suffering and death are ever the two great apostles who lead many wanderers in Europe at their last moments to our traditional Christian wisdom.&lt;br /&gt;		In the same way among our Bantu we see the &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s&amp;sup1;, the &amp;ldquo;civilized&amp;rdquo;, even the Christians, return to their former ways of behaviour whenever they are overtaken by moral lassitude, danger or suffering. They do so because their ancestors left them their practical solution of the great problem of humanity, the problem of life and death, of salvation or destruction. The Bantu, only converted or civilized superficially, return at the instance of a determining force to the behaviour atavistically dictated to them.&lt;br /&gt;		Among the Bantu and, indeed, among all primitive peoples, life and death are the great apostles of fidelity to a magical view of life and of recourse to traditional magical practices.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Evolu&amp;eacute;s: I preserve this term untranslated for lack of a suitable English equivalent. It signifies those who have passed out of the traditional ways of life and thought of their own ethnic group and have taken over those of the West. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[14]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. All human behaviour depends upon a system of principles.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		If the modern over-civilized European is unable to be entirely emancipated from the attitudes of his ancestors, it is because his reactions are founded upon a complete philosophical system, influenced by Christianity ; upon a clear, complete, positive intellectual conception of the universe, of man, of life and death, and of the survival of a spiritual principle called the soul. This view of the visible and invisible world is too deeply ingrained in the spirit of Western culture, not to rise up again irresistibly when the great crises of life occur.&lt;br /&gt;		It is very possible, both with the individual and with the tribal or culture group, that the mysteries of life and death, survival and destruction, together with fear arising from all these mysteries, became the psychological agent that gave birth to certain behaviour patterns and to certain redemptive practices. It would, however, scarcely be scientific to retain, as the sole ground of human behaviour, the influence of environment and of psychological factors (emotion, fantasy, or childish imagination). We do not study the attitudes of a few individuals. We compare two conceptions of life-the Christian on the one hand and the magical on the other-which have perpetuated themselves through time and in space: two conceptions which, in the course of centuries, whole peoples and entire cultures have embraced.&lt;br /&gt;		The persistence of these attitudes through centuries of simultaneous evolution can only be satisfactorily explained by the presence of a corpus of logically coordinated intellectual concepts, a &amp;quot;Lore&amp;quot;. Behaviour can be neither universal nor permanent unless it is based upon a concatenation of ideas, a logical system of thought, a complete positive philosophy of the universe, of man and of the things which surround him, of existence, life, death and of the life beyond.&lt;br /&gt;		Without excluding other factors (divine and human) we must postulate, seek and discover a logical system of human thought as the ultimate foundation of any logical and universal system of human behaviour.&lt;br /&gt;		No live code of behaviour is possible unless the meaning of life is sensed. There can be no will to determine life unless the [15] ends of life are conceived. No one can pursue the way to redemption who has no philosophy of salvation.&lt;br /&gt;		In the matter of the religion of primitive peoples, modern science seems to have concluded quite definitely, by the light of the methods of historical criticism, that present beliefs of primitive and semi primitive peoples had their origin in simple notions which have degenerated today into complex conceptions; and in precise, exact principles that have evolved towards imprecision and inexactness. It is today generally admitted that, among primitive peoples, it is the most primitive of all who have maintained the most pure form of the concept of the Supreme Being, Creator and Disposer of the Universe.&lt;br /&gt;		The faith of really primitive peoples in the Supreme Being lies at the root of all the religious conceptions current among semi-primitives: animism, dynamism, fetichism and magic.&lt;br /&gt;		Need we, then, be astonished that we find among the Bantu, and more generally among all primitive peoples, as the foundation upon which their intellectual conception of the universe rests, certain basic principles and even a system of philosophy-though it is relatively simple and primitive-derived from a logically coherent ontology?&lt;br /&gt;		Many roads seem to lead to the discovery of such an ontological system. A profound knowledge of the language, a penetrating study of their ethnology, a critical investigation of their laws, or again, the adaptation of religious teaching to primitive thinking: all these can reveal it to us.&lt;br /&gt;		It is also possible-and this is obviously the shortest way- to trace directly the thought of Bantu on the deepest matters, to penetrate it and to analyse it. Has Bantu philosophy been studied and developed as such? If not, it is high time that each scholar should start to seek out and define the fundamental thought underlying Bantu ontology, the one and only key that allows native thought to be penetrated.&lt;br /&gt;		We need not expect the first African who comes along, especially the young ones, to be able to give us a systematic exposition of his ontological system. None the less, this ontology exists; and it penetrates and informs all the thought of these primitives; it dominates and orientates all their behaviour.&lt;br /&gt;		It is our task to trace out the elements of this thought, to [16] classify them and to systematise them according to the ordered systems and intellectual disciplines of the Western world.&lt;br /&gt;		Anyone who claims that primitive peoples possess no system of thought, excludes them thereby from the category of men. Those who do so, contradict themselves fatally elsewhere. To give one example only, we find it in R. Allier, who, in his &amp;quot;Psychology of Conversion&amp;quot; writes, (p. 138) &amp;quot;If you ask the Ba-Souto, says Mr. Dieterlen, the why and the wherefore of these customs, they cannot tell you. They do not indulge in reflective thought. They have no theories and no doctrines. The only thing that matters, they think, is the carrying out of certain traditional acts, preserving contact with the past and with the dead&amp;quot;. But two pages further on we read, &amp;quot;What is it which causes this opposition of the chiefs to be irresistible? It is the fear of breaking the mystic bond which, through the chiefs, is established with the ancestors and the fear of the disasters which that may entail&amp;quot;. What is this &amp;quot;mystic bond&amp;quot; or what is this &amp;quot;ancestral influence&amp;quot; if not the elements of a system of thought? Is it a simple instinct or an irrational fear and no more? Would it not be more reasonable and more scientific to look for whatever ideas sustain this reaction to the &amp;quot;mystic bond&amp;quot;? Perhaps, after that, we may be able to do without the omnibus word &amp;quot;mystic&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. The reasons for seeking the intellectual instrument, the fundamental philosophical concepts and principles of the Bantu.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Any one who wishes to study primitive people or &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s must give up all idea of attaining valid scientific conclusions so long as he has not been able to understand their metaphysic. To declare on a priori grounds that primitive peoples have no ideas on the nature of beings, that they have no ontology and that they are completely lacking in logic, is simply to turn one&amp;#39;s back on reality. Every day we are able to note that primitive peoples are by no means just children afflicted with a bizarre imagination. It is as Men that we have learned to know them in their homes. Folklore alone and superficial descriptions of&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. See my Translator&amp;#39;s Foreword on the use of the names &amp;quot;African&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;Bantu&amp;quot; passim. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[17]&lt;br /&gt;		strange customs cannot enable us to discover and understand primitive man. Ethnology, linguistics, psycho-analysis, jurisprudence, sociology and the study of religions are able to yield definitive results only after the philosophy and the ontology of a primitive people have been thoroughly studied and written up. If, in fact, primitive peoples have a concrete conception of being and of the universe, this &amp;quot;ontology&amp;quot; of theirs will give a special character, a local colour, to their beliefs and religious practices, to their mores, to their language, to their institutions and customs, to their psychological reactions and, more generally, to their whole behaviour. It is even more true, I venture to think, that the Bantu, like primitive people in general, live more than we do by Ideas and by following their own ideas.&lt;br /&gt;		So much must be said for the benefit of those who wish to &amp;quot;study&amp;quot; the Bantu and primitive peoples generally.&lt;br /&gt;		Nevertheless, a better understanding of the realm of Bantu thought is just as indispensable for all who are called upon to live among native people. It therefore concerns all colonials, especially those whose duty is to hold administrative or judicial office among African people; all those who are concerning themselves with a felicitous development of tribal law; in short, it concerns all who wish to civilize, educate and raise the Bantu. But, if it concerns all colonizers with good will, it concerns most particularly missionaries.&lt;br /&gt;		If one has not penetrated into the depths of the personality as such, if one does not know on what basis their acts come about, it is not possible to understand the Bantu. One is entering into no spiritual contact with them. One cannot make oneself intelligible to them, especially in dealing with the great spiritual realities. On the contrary, one runs the risk, while believing that one is &amp;quot;civilizing&amp;quot; the individual, of in fact corrupting him, working to increase the numbers of the deracinated&amp;sup1; and to become the architect of revolts.&lt;br /&gt;		We find ourselves at a loss when confronted by native law and customs. It is impossible to distinguish what is commendable from what is pernicious for lack of any criterion to enable us&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. deracinated: Fr. d&amp;eacute;racin&amp;eacute;s, those who have been torn away from their ethnic roots; and who, belonging nowhere, are very liable as a result of their insecurity to all kinds of unstable behaviour. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[18]&lt;br /&gt;		to keep not only some good things in native custom, but all that is good therein, cutting out all that is evil. Indeed, there is a reason for safeguarding, for protecting with every care, for purifying and refining everything that is worthy of respect in native custom, in order to make a link, or, if the metaphor be preferred, a bridgehead, by means of which natives can attain without hindrance all that we have to offer them in respect of stable, deep, true civilization. Only if we set out from the true, the good and the stable in native custom shall we be able to lead our Africans in the direction of a true Bantu civilization.&lt;br /&gt;		The fact is that those in high positions do not know to which patron saint to turn for guidance in directing the Bantu, who are growing ever more and more unstable politically. They realize their own impotence to give sound directions worthy of acceptance to ensure the evolution and civilization of the Bantu. All this seems to me to be due to the fact that we have taken no account of Bantu ontology; that we have not as yet succeeded in reproducing syntheses of their thought; and that in consequence we are not fit to judge them upon their ideas.&lt;br /&gt;		It has repeatedly been said that evangelization and catechetical work should be adapted... Adapted to what? We can build churches in native architecture, introduce African melodies into the liturgy, use styles of vestments borrowed from Mandarins or Bedouins, but real adaptation consists in the adaptation of our spirit to the spirit of these people. I shall have occasion to recur to this point. I hope in due course to submit for consideration a catechism adapted to primitive mentality &amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;4. The gulf dividing Africans and Whites will remain and widen so long as we do not meet them in the wholesome aspirations of their own ontology &amp;sup2;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. &amp;quot;Cat&amp;eacute;ch&amp;egrave;se Bantoue&amp;quot;: Lesc Questions Missionnaires: Abbaye de St. Andr&amp;eacute;, Bruges, Belgium.&lt;br /&gt;		2. &amp;quot;I wish to draw attention to the attitude of mind in which you claim recognition of the full worth of the Black race (&amp;quot;race noire&amp;quot; C.K.). The point of view which you adopt in regard to it evokes my wormest congratulations and I am quite sure that - as so many distinguished persons attest - the fruits of your work will be a notable advance in racial understanding, esteem and sympathy, which, by God&amp;#39;s will, should unite the peoples of all countries, regardless of the races to which they belong.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		Dom Pierre C&amp;eacute;lestin Lou Tseng Tsiang, O.S.B.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[19]&lt;br /&gt;		Why does not the African change? How is it that the pagan, the uncivilized, is stable, while the &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;, the Christian, is not? Because the pagan founds his life upon the traditional groundwork of his theodicy and his ontology, which include his whole mental life in their purview and supply him with a complete solution to the problem of living. On the other hand, the &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;, and often the Christian, has never effected a reconciliation between his new way of life and his former native philosophy, which remains intact just below the surface (of his behaviour), though we have rejected it in toto, together with the (ensuing) tribal customs that we misunderstand and disapprove. This philosophy was, however, the characteristic feature which made the Bantu the man he was. It belonged to his essential nature. To abandon it amounts to intellectual suicide for him. It should have been our prime task to add new nobility to this Bantu thought.&lt;br /&gt;		Need we, then, be surprised that beneath the veneer of &amp;quot;civilization&amp;quot; the &amp;quot;Negro&amp;quot; remains always ready to break through? We are astonished to find one who has spent years among Whites readapt himself easily by the end of a few months to the community life of his place of origin and soon become reabsorbed in it. He has no need to readjust himself because the roots of his thought are unchanged. Nothing and nobody have made him conscious of any inadequacy in his philosophy.&lt;br /&gt;		How many fully civilized persons, or true &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s, can we count among the natives of the Congo? Of d&amp;eacute;racin&amp;eacute;s and degenerates the number is legion. Of materialists who have lost their foothold in ancestral tradition without having grasped Western thought and philosophy there are not a few. The majority, however, remain &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; under a light coating of white imitation. Such an one, for example, was a clerk in the Colony whose house was searched during the February 1944 revolt. A notebook was found with magical formulas scribbled from end to end of it;...he had copied them in the house of another clerk who had himself transcribed them. In like manner the Elizabethville &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s claim, since these revolts, &amp;quot;At last we have found the &amp;quot;magic&amp;quot; way to attain the force of the Whites, while they in future shall have only ours. The Blacks will be henceforth Whites; the Whites Blacks&amp;quot;. These examples show us clearly how the &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s persist in &amp;quot;reasoning&amp;quot; according to Bantu [20] thought, according to the principle of the interaction of forces.&lt;br /&gt;		Whose fault is that? The fault of the Bantu? Perhaps the time has come to make our general confession; at any rate, it is time at least to open our eyes. All of us, missionaries, magistrates, administrators, all in directive posts or posts which ought to be directive, have failed to reach their &amp;quot;souls&amp;quot;, or at any rate to reach them to the profound degree that should have been attained. Even specialists have left the question aside. Whether we state this merely by way of a frank admission, or avow it with contrition, the fact remains. By having failed to explore the ontology of the Bantu, we lack the power to offer them either a spiritual body of teaching that they are capable of assimilating, or an intellectual synthesis that they can understand. By having failed to understand the soul of the Bantu people, we have neglected to make any systematic effort to secure for it a purer and a more dynamic life&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		It is contended that in condemning the whole gamut of their supposed &amp;quot;childish and savage customs&amp;quot; by the judgment &amp;quot;this is stupid and bad&amp;quot;, we have taken our share of the responsibility for having killed &amp;quot;the man&amp;quot; in the Bantu&amp;sup2;.&lt;br /&gt;		We must add, moreover, that it is intellectuals with good will, giving guidance to native society-especially missionaries- who alone can achieve useful work which will contribute to the civilizing of the Bantu. To introduce the Africans to real civilization, much more is necessary than material prosperity, the social welfare that is so much vaunted, and the turning out of readymade clerks. There must be something more, too, than the teaching of &amp;quot;kifran&amp;ccedil;ais&amp;quot;, or English.&lt;br /&gt;		In common with so many others, I used to think that we could get rid of Bantu &amp;quot;stupidities&amp;quot;&amp;sup3; by suitable talks on natural [21] science, hygiene, etc., as if the natural sciences could subvert their traditional lore or their philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Mgr. Van Schingen, Vicar Apostolic of Kwango (Belgian Congo) writes to me: &amp;quot;I say simply that your pages show those to be right who, aware of the difficulty of getting at the soul of the Bantu and of understanding it deeply, have felt constrained to seek a solid basis of support for their technique of adaptation&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2. It will be shown later that the concrete means by which magic can effectively be fought is not to stifle in the Bantu mind all its native ideas, but to show him that magical practices involve him in contradictions of the healthy principles of his own philosophy.&lt;br /&gt;		Fr. &amp;quot;b&amp;ecirc;tises&amp;quot;: Du. &amp;quot;onnoozelheden&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;627&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Banfumungo.gif&quot; width=&quot;464&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Figure of reliquary. Red. wood.&lt;br /&gt;			Hght: 0.34 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			BANFUMUNGO. Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;Collection John D. Graham Esq. &amp;nbsp;New-York.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We destroy in this way their Natural Sciences, but their fundamental concepts concerning the universe remain unchanged. An example will make this point clear. How many times have we not heard an African accused of being the cause of an illness, even of the death, of some other person simply because he had a dispute with him, or because he had insulted or cursed him? There is the usual palaver. The accused accepts judgment. He pays the damages claimed from him, usually without much argument and even, sometimes, in spite of the contrary judgment of an European Court. For the Bantu, indeed, the palaver judgments are clear and indisputable. They have a different conception of the relationships between men, of causality and responsibility. What we regard as the illogical lucubrations of &amp;quot;gloomy Niggers&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;, what we condemn as greed, exploitation of the weak, are for them logical deductions from facts as they see them, and become an ontological necessity. If thereafter we wish to convince Africans of the absurdity of their sizing up of the facts by making them see how this man came to fall sick and of what he died, that is to say by showing them the physical causes of the death or of the illness, we are wasting our time. It would be in vain even to give them a course in microbiology to make them see with their own eyes, or even to discover for themselves through the microscope and by chemical reactions what the &amp;quot;cause&amp;quot; of the death was. Even then we should not have settled their problem. We should have decided only the physiological or chemical problem connected with it. The true and underlying cause, the metaphysical cause, would none the less remain for them in the terms of their thought, their traditional ontological wisdom. We shall see later how far this point of view is the logical one.&lt;br /&gt;		And so the African learns from us to read and write, to calculate and to do accounts. He becomes familiar with our techniques; but, just like his brother who has stayed in the village, he feels through day to day experience that the lack of comprehension of the Whites prevents the motivations of his&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;de sombres t&amp;ecirc;tes noires&amp;quot;: Du. &amp;quot;duistere zwarte koppen&amp;quot; (C.K.).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[22]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		conduct from being understood. His vital, elemental, traditional lore is wounded. His respect for us and his confidence in us are in danger of failing under the test.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;5. Do these fundamental notions and first principles really belong to philosophy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		In recent decades, the foundation of primitive religion has been successively accepted as consisting in ancestor worship, animism, cosmic mythology, totemism, magic, until finally it was discovered that primitive peoples originally had a faith in and a worship of the supreme Being, the creative Spirit.&lt;br /&gt;		All schools of thought have described and studied African behaviour in the light of their respective systems. It is striking that these studies have so often had vague ideas of, approached near to, or even touched upon, the fundamental concept of Bantu ontology. Yet we find scarcely any systematic study of this ontology. No well founded definitions, even, have been laid down; in particular, no universally accepted definitions of animism, totemism, dynamism and magic. What has been lacking in European investigation, vocabulary, or understanding? In my opinion, none of these conceptions of primitive thought has been sufficiently exposed to its roots, studied and defined from the point of view of the primitive peoples concerned. How often we find alleged definitions which confine themselves to superficial description of the external aspects of native customs &amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		Why is it that the universal &amp;quot;munganga&amp;quot; (whatever may be the local vernacular variants of the term) is denoted in different authors by such divergent names as sorcerer, fetisher, necromancer, medicine man, magician, etc.? An exact definition is still to be sought. But the African: in what terms does he think of this personage? That is the definition which we have to look for.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		Admitting that Africans are &amp;quot;animists&amp;quot;, in the sense that they locate a &amp;quot;soul&amp;quot; in all beings; or that we may hold them&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. A short time after the Liberation, a colleague brought me from Europa a copy of Westermann: &amp;quot;The African To day and Tomorrow&amp;quot;, 2nd Edition, Essen. I had the very agreeable surprise of finding in it the fundamental principles of my theory of forces.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[23]&lt;br /&gt;		to be &amp;quot;dynamists&amp;quot; in the sense that they recognise a &amp;quot;mana&amp;quot;, an universal force, animating all the beings of the universe, even so we must ask the Bantu themselves the questions, &amp;quot;How can these souls, or this force, be able, as you say, to act upon beings? How does this interaction with beings take place? How can the &amp;quot;bwanga&amp;quot; (magical medicine, amulet, talisman) heal a man, as you say it does? How can the mfwisi, the muloji, the caster of spells, kill you, even at a distance? How can a dead man be reborn? What do you understand by this rebirth? How can the initiation ceremony turn a simple human being into a munganga, a magician healer, or, as we make him to appear later on, a master of forces? Who initiates, the man or the spirit? How does the initiate acquire &amp;quot;knowledge&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;power&amp;quot;? Why does a malediction have a destructive effect? How is it acquired? Why is it that our catechumens on the eve of baptism come to us and say: &amp;quot;No doubt our magical cures are potent, but we wish to forswear recourse to them&amp;quot;?&lt;br /&gt;		Such questions go beyond the usual superficial descriptions of native customs. They are not, however, fated to remain for ever unanswered. The answer to them is the one that all Bantu will make without exception. What has been called magic, animism, ancestor-worship, or dynamism-in short, all the customs of the Bantu-depend upon a single principle, knowledge of the Inmost Nature of beings, that is to say, upon their Ontological Principle. For is it not by means of this philosophical term that we must express their knowledge of being, of the existence of things?&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;6. Can we give Bantu thought a &amp;quot;philosophical system&amp;quot;?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is universally admitted that humanity evolves. The Bantu among whom we are living are not completely primitive people. They have evolved. It is certain that their religion, especially, has done so. Their customs, habits, behaviour must also have developed.&lt;br /&gt;		It has been claimed that the origin of primitive religion is to be found in ancestor-worship, animism, totemism, or magic. According to the most recent historical research it seems to be established that the worship of the Supreme Being is at least as [24] old as, if not older than, magic. Must we, then, conclude that the Bantu have been successively monotheists, then animists, and after that totemists? That they have, on each occasion, changed their religion? Must one admit that the changes in religion have been the result of revolutions? Is it not more likely that these modifications of religious conceptions have been the result of a progressive evolution from primitive religious days? This question does not seem to admit of dispute: what took place was evolution, not revolution.&lt;br /&gt;		Here is the best proof of this thesis. Bantu of the present day have maintained their faith in what were originally theistic elements of their religion, yet we see them to-day at one and the same time ancestor-worshippers, animists, dynamists, totemists and believers in magic. But more: anyone to-day can easily verify for himself that our living Bantu say, speaking of ancestor-worship, animism, etc. &amp;quot;all that is willed by God, the Supreme Being, and it has all been given to help us men&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		After that can one claim any longer that with each change in religious practices the Bantu changed their mental outlook, modifying their system of thought and their conceptions of the world? And if, on the contrary, we find these different practices in being side by side, are we then to venture to say that the Bantu have attained to six or seven parallel philosophical systems? We must do nothing of the sort, but reasonably allow that these different manifestations of faith are linked to one single concept, to one and the same idea of the universe, to one and the same metaphysical principle.&lt;br /&gt;		All these religious pratices-as elsewhere their juristic conceptions and the politica! organisation of their society-constitute but one logical whole in the thought of the Bantu. These different realities they explain and justify in relation to their philosophy, a single system and unique to them, their Bantu ontology.&lt;br /&gt;		It is not our aim to trace the origins or development of Bantu thought. Neither is it our present business to pass judgment upon the intrinsic worth of their philosophy. Let us for the present refrain from all such judgments, keeping only to ethnology. Let us try above all to understand Bantu philosophy, to know what their beliefs are and what is their rational interpretation of the nature of visible and invisible things. These views may be held to be sound or erroneous: in either case we should admit [25] that their ideas on the nature of the universe are essentially metaphysical knowledge, which constitutes them an ontology.&lt;br /&gt;		Before we set about teaching these Africans our system of philosophical thought, let us try to master theirs. Without philosophical insight, ethnology is mere folklore... we can no longer be content with vague terms like &amp;quot;the mysterious forces in beings&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;certain beliefs&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;undefinable influences&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;a certain conception of man and nature&amp;quot;. Such definitions, void of all content, have precisely no scientific significance.&lt;br /&gt;		We do not claim, of course, that the Bantu are capable of formulating a philosophical treatise, complete with an adequate vocabulary. It is our job to proceed to such systematic development. It is we who will be able to tell them, in precise terms, what their inmost concept of being is. They will recognize themselves in our words and will acquiesce, saying, &amp;quot;You understand us: you now know us completely: you &amp;quot;know&amp;quot; in the way we &amp;quot;know&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		More than that, if we can adapt our teaching of true religion to what is worthy of respect in their ontology, we shall hear, in the same way in which it was given to me, such testimony as was given to me. &amp;quot;Now you deceive yourself no longer, you speak as our fathers speak, it always seemed to us that we must be right.&amp;quot; They were feeling, I have no doubt, that my instruction, while rejecting the false conclusions of their philosophy, was adapting itself wonderfully to some &amp;quot;soul of truth&amp;quot; in their own fundamental concepts.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;7. Last introductory remarks.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This present introduction was written only after the completion of my systematic study of Bantu ontology and after my synthesis of their philosophy and its application to our own religious doctrines and catechetical instruction.&lt;br /&gt;		It replies to the arguments and criticisms of my colleagues who have been kind enough to interest themselves in these studies and in my exposition of Bantu ontology. It is the result of discussions that have often been very lively. Thanks to their criticisms, I have been able to elaborate this so as to meet certain objections which, though leading to no fruitful issue, [26] would, without this introduction, inevitably arise in the minds of many readers. In developing this preliminary thesis, I have sought to prepare and ease the way for what follows. I confidently hope to be able to convince my readers that real philosophy can be found among indigenous peoples and that it should be sought among them. Many people have already written to me &amp;quot;That is exactly what I have always thought&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		The problem of Bantu ontology, the problem whether it exists or not, is thus open to discussion. It is legitimate now to enter upon the task of setting out their philosophy, which is perhaps that common to all primitive peoples, to all clan societies&amp;sup2;.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Many colonials living in contact with Africans have assured me that I have set out nothing new, but merely set out systematically what they had grasped vaguely from their practical knowledge of Africans.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2. Prof. Melville Y. Herskovits, of the Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, U.S.A., writes: &amp;quot;I am interested that so many of the ideas that Father Tempels exposes as coming from the Belgian Congo are so close to those that I have found among the Sudanese peoples of the Guinea coasts area. They are also the same ideas that we have found in such areas as Haiti and Brazil and Surinam in the New World&amp;quot;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Jean Capart, the Egyptologist, has written:&amp;quot; I have spoken about the Bantu philosophy to those associated with me and read to them Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; little book. I have promised myself a rereading of it and of the &amp;quot;Elements of Negro Customary Law &amp;quot; (by E. Possoz) for I have an idea, through my first contact with them, that I shall find in them the key to many Egyptian problems. It is offen a mistake to begin the study of ancient civilizations by relating them to our own, and by seeking to measure them by unsuitable standards. The concept of LIFE alone allows the Egyptian religion to be assessed at its full worth ; and the removal from it of the parasitical excrescences which arouse unfavourable impressions and give rise to harsh judgments&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;		[27]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER II&lt;br /&gt;		BANTU ONTOLOGY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;1. The Terminology used.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Before beginning to set out the philosophy of the Bantu, we must justify the use of the terms which we shall employ. By so doing we shall forestall certain objections.&lt;br /&gt;		Since we are going to treat philosophy, we should use the philosophical terminology accessible to the European reader. As the thought of the Bantu is foreign to ours, we shall call theirs provisionally &amp;quot;the philosophy of magic&amp;quot;, though our terminology will not, perhaps, fully cover their thought. Our terms can furnish only an approximation to concepts and principles foreign to us.&lt;br /&gt;		Even if we were to employ a literal translation of Bantu terms, we should have to explain to the uninitiated reader the exact force of these native expressions.&lt;br /&gt;		We shall, therefore, use English terminology, specifying on every occasion the limitations or extensions by which the received meaning of the terms should be qualified in order to express the Bantu concept exactly.&lt;br /&gt;		If our terminology, in spite of this precaution, seems inadequate to the reader, we invite him to suggest an alternative, so that with the benefit of his collaboration, we can approach more nearly to perfection.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[28]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		The present study, after all, claims to be no more than an hypothesis, a first attempt at the systematic development of what Bantu philosophy is. It is necessary to distinguish two quite distinct elements in it:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		1) the analysis of Bantu philosophy as I see it;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2) the terminology in which I have tried to make it accessible to the European reader.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Therefore, even if this terminology should appear inadequate, it should not be concluded that the object of the study itself, an analysis of Bantu thought, is thereby vitiated. I ask the reader to bend his best attention to the essential problem, the study of Bantu thought, rather than to boggle over the minor question of terminology.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. Method.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		What is the best way in which to set out a systematic exposition of Bantu philosophy while justifying the objectivity of our hypothesis? We have, in fact, to show the cohesion of our theoretical proposals, while at the same time proving that they are sound, and that they apply to the actualities of Bantu life.&lt;br /&gt;		We could begin by a comparative study of the languages, modes of behaviour, institutions and customs of the Bantu; we could analyse them and separate their fundamental ideas; finally we could construct, from these elements a system of Bantu thought.&lt;br /&gt;		This, as a matter of fact, is the method that I followed myself. But it is the long, tedious way of groping and searching, of conceiving an idea and soon afterwards rejecting it; in which apparent gleams of light lead only back into darkness. It is a story without end, or one which only at long last results in precise, wall-defined ideas fitting into a logical system.&lt;br /&gt;		This long way, moreover, is not always available to the European reader. It presupposes a long residence among a primitive people, through which, very slowly and without their becoming conscious of it, intimate human contact is established. One lives their life with them, sharing their difficulties, their feasts, their games, their hunting, their palavers. Speaking their&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;620&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/BalubaHemba.gif&quot; width=&quot;464&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Nape-rest in wood.&lt;br /&gt;			Width: 0.20 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			Baluba-Hemba. Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;br /&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[29]&lt;br /&gt;		language, one learns more by listening to their intercourse one with another than by pursuing systematic investigations. In the end, without knowing how, one attains the ability to think like the Bantu and to look upon life as they do. One is recognised by them as one of themselves, as genuinely Bantu, by reason of one&amp;#39;s having come to understand their wisdom. This kind of understanding proves to be far more a matter of experience and of intuition than of study.&lt;br /&gt;		For the rest, I have found out only too well that even when one has got to earth with a problem by a study of relevant customs, words and institutions, one easily comes a fatal cropper by falling into argument concerning its details. Customs have, in fact, besides their fundamental significance, a significance which they derive as local colour. Examples which one would cite are always being rejected on grounds such as: &amp;quot;with us this custom is different&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;in our part of the country people express themselves differently&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		It therefore seems to me preferable first to present as briefly as possible my complete formulation of Bantu philosophy. After this systematic theoretical exposition, examples from native ways of expressing themselves, or of behaviour, which support my theses will find their place. If the applications of this view of Bantu philosophy yield a satisfactory explanation of observed facts, we may find therein a proof of the validity, even of the exactitude, of our assumptions.&lt;br /&gt;		It is true that those who have read my thesis in its early stages have immediately set out certain objections, either against the theories advanced in themselves, or against the terminology used, but always because they were looking at it from the European point of view. Studying with them subsequently innumerable instances of its practical exemplification in behaviour, I have generally brought the objectors to admit that Bantu philosophy must be something like what I have set it out to be. As for the terminology used, which is generally upsetting at first sight, it has as a rule been conceded to me that it is difficult to find in the philosophical vocabulary of European language terms which cover Bantu thought better.&lt;br /&gt;		It seems to me that neither the imperfections of terminology, nor the lacunae which still remain in my suggested synthesis of Bantu philosophy, ought to cause me to hold up publication of [30] the fruits of my investigations and of the conclusions which result from them. May what I now publish result in other scholars being stirred to pursue their own enquiries, so that by collaboration definitive results may be obtained.&lt;br /&gt;		I therefore invite the reader of this study to put out of his mind while reading it both his western philosophical thought and any judgments which he may have already made concerning Bantu and primitive peoples I ask him to abandon received ideas and to apply his mind to getting hold of the significance of what is here said, trying to grasp Bantu thought from within and not allowing himself to be diverted into criticism of my way of setting it out or of my choice of terms. I ask him even to reserve judgment concerning the evaluation to be put upon the theory and, before he pronounces judgment upon it, to have patience to consider the proofs and applications of it which will ultimately be given. After that he may propound his criticisms and attack either the theory itself or the way in which it is set out.&lt;br /&gt;		Let us do as the Africans do. When they hold a palaver it is a rule that whoever is arguing a case should suffer an interruption. Even when he stops speaking, the judge will say to him, &amp;quot;Have you finished speaking?&amp;quot; ; and only after that gives the floor to the opposing side.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. Bantu behaviour; It is centred in a single value: vital force&amp;sup1;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Certain words are constantly being used by Africans. They are those which express their supreme values; and they recur like variations upon a leitmoti present in their language, their thought, and in all their acts and deeds.&lt;br /&gt;		This supreme value is life, force, to live strongly, or vital force.&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu say, in respect of a number of strange practices in which we see neither rime nor reason, that their purpose is to acquire life, strength or vital force, to live strongly, that they are to make life stronger, or to assure that force shall remain perpetually in one&amp;#39;s posterity.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. See note on Terminology, p. 8. The French terms are la force, vivre fort, force vitale. Despite precedents, I am still affronted by the phrase &amp;quot;vital force&amp;quot; ; but it the Reader, equally jarred, is driven in his search for an alternative to ponder the whole context of the concept involved in Fr. Tempels&amp;#39; book, he may in the end conclude that his time has not been ill-spent. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[31]&lt;br /&gt;		Used negatively, the same idea is expressed when the Bantu say: we act thus to be protected from misfortune, or from a diminution of life or of being, or in order to protect ourselves from those influences which annihilate or diminish us.&lt;br /&gt;		Force, the potent life, vital energy are the object of prayers and invocations to God, to the spirits and to the dead, as well as of all that is usually called magic, sorcery or magical remedies. The Bantu will tell you that they go to a diviner to learn the words of life, so that he can teach them the way of making life stronger. In every Bantu language it is easy to recognize the words or phrases denoting a force, which is not used in an exclusively bodily sense, but in the sense of the integrity of our whole being.&lt;br /&gt;		The bwanga (which has been translated &amp;quot;magical remedy&amp;quot;) ought not, they say, to be applied to the wound or sick limb. It does not necessarily possess local therapeutic effects, but it strengthens, it increases the vital force.&lt;br /&gt;		In calling upon God, the spirits, or the ancestral spirits, the heathen ask above all, &amp;quot;give me force&amp;quot;. If one urges them to abandon magical practices, as being contrary to the will of God and therefore evil, one will get the reply, &amp;quot;wherein are they wicked?&amp;quot; What we brand as magic is, in their eyes, nothing but setting to work natural forces placed at the disposal of man by God to strengthen man&amp;#39;s vital energy.&lt;br /&gt;		When they try to get away from metaphors and periphrases, the Bantu speak of God himself as &amp;quot;the Strong One&amp;quot;, he who possesses Force in himself. He is also the source of the Force of every creature. God is the &amp;quot;Dijina dikatampe&amp;quot;: the great name, because he is the great Force, the &amp;quot;mukomo&amp;quot;, as our Baluba have it, the one who is stronger than all other.&lt;br /&gt;		The spirits of the first ancestors, highly exalted in the superhuman world, possess extraordinary force inasmuch as they are the founders of the human race and propagators of the divine inheritance of vital human strength. The other dead are esteemed only to the extent to which they increase and perpetuate their vital force in their progeny.&lt;br /&gt;		In the minds of Bantu, all beings in the universe possess vital force of their own: human, animal, vegetable, or inanimate.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr.&amp;quot;Le Puissant&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[32]&lt;br /&gt;		Each being has been endowed by God with a certain force, capable of strengthening the vital energy of the strongest being of all creation: man.&lt;br /&gt;		Supreme happiness, the only kind of blessing, is, to the Bantu, to possess the greatest vital force: the worst misfortune and, in very truth, the only misfortune, is, he thinks, the diminution of this power.&lt;br /&gt;		Every illness, wound or disappointment, all suffering, depression, or fatigue, every injustice and every failure: all these are held to be, and are spoken of by the Bantu as, a diminution of vital force.&lt;br /&gt;		Illness and death do not have their source in our own vital power, but result from some external agent who weakens us through his greater force. It is only by fortifying our vital energy through the use of magical recipes, that we acquire resistance to malevolent external forces.&lt;br /&gt;		We need not be surprised that the Bantu allude to this vital force in their greetings one to another, using such forms of address as: &amp;quot;You are strong&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;you have life in you&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;you have life strongly in you&amp;quot; ; and that they express sympathy in such phrases as &amp;quot;your vital force is lowered&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;your vital energy has been sapped&amp;quot;. A similar idea is found in the form of sympathy, &amp;quot;wafwa ko!&amp;quot; which we translate &amp;quot;you are dying&amp;quot;; and by reason of our mistranslation, we are quite unable to understand the Bantu and find them given to ridiculous exaggeration when they continually say that they are &amp;quot;dead&amp;quot; of hunger or of fatigue, or that the least obstacle or illness is &amp;quot;killing&amp;quot; them. In their own minds they are simply indicating a diminution of vital force, in which sense their expression is reasonable and sensible enough. In their languages, too, are words like &amp;quot;kufwa&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;fukwididila&amp;quot;, indicating the progressing stages of loss of force, of vitality, and the superlative of which signifies total paralysis of the power to live. It is quite erroneous for us to translate these words by &amp;quot;to die&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;to die entirely&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		This explains what has, indeed, been true, that the thing which most inhibits pagans from conversion to Christianity and from giving up magical rites is the fear of attenuating this vital energy through ceasing to have recourse to the natural powers which sustain it.&lt;br /&gt;		In 1936 I gave my Normal Class students at Lukonzolwa [33] (Lake Mo&amp;euml;ro) as an essay subject, &amp;quot;Obstacles to conversion among pagan peoples&amp;quot;. To my astonishment, so far from setting out a list of practices, all of them declared that the great obstacle could be summed up in a conviction that to abandon the customs appointed by their ancestors would lead to death. The objection, therefore, was rather a matter of principle than of practice, their fear being grounded in the &amp;quot;truths&amp;quot; of Bantu ontology.&lt;br /&gt;		These various aspects of Bantu behaviour already enable us to see that the key to Bantu thought is the idea of vital force, of which the source is God&amp;sup1;. Vital force is the reality which, though invisible, is supreme in man. Man can renew his vital force by tapping the strength of other creatures.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;4. Bantu ontology.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		a) The general notion of being&amp;sup2;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We have seen that the Bantu soul hankers after life and force. The fundamental notion under which being is conceived lies within the category of forces.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The Revd. Sister Carmela, of the Soeurs Missionnaires de Notre Dame d&amp;#39;Afrique supplies important confirmation from Bunia, in Ituri (Belgian Congo:&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;quot;...Here the African never speaks of &amp;quot;vital force&amp;quot;. When anyone speaks to him&lt;br /&gt;		about it, he replies, &amp;quot;Yes, it is exactly like that with us&amp;quot; ; and he smiles with&lt;br /&gt;		satisfaction. And they say one to another, &amp;quot;She knows us&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		But among them the facts are such that everyone knows them and nobody needs to talk about them. For example, they say, we never speak of the &amp;quot;force of life&amp;quot; because with us life and force are one and the same thing. If one is less strong, one does not speak of life. Neither does one say that life &amp;quot;is becoming stronger&amp;quot;; one feels it; one has an impression of it.&lt;br /&gt;		And, if favourable external conditions make you stronger, it will be said that you have power...&lt;br /&gt;		Evidently vital force is to the African mind the great and important thing.&lt;br /&gt;		They have also some small idea of being, but as some quite higher thing. For example, a woman reflecting upon injustice on the part of a stronger party: &amp;quot;God is&amp;quot;. She does not say. &amp;quot;God lives!&amp;quot; Since our Africans are unable to obtain justice they say, &amp;quot;God is!&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		The Bahema, Alur, Walenda all have the same philosophy as the Bantu. The forms of religion change, yes; but the basis of it is exactly the same.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2.&amp;quot;The chief value of your book consists, I think, in your demonstration of the difference which exists between Africans and Whites in the way in which they conceive of being. That is a fine discovery indeed, the fruit of your penetrating and patient analysis, which deserves all praise. It constitutes a contribution of which we must take full account in order the better to enter into African thought and the better to understand them. On this point your work seems to me to be impressive beyond any possibility of contradiction.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		Achille, Card. Lienart.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[34]&lt;br /&gt;		Metaphysics studies this reality, existing in everything and in every being in the universe. It is in virtue of this reality that all beings have something in common, so that the definition of this reality may be applied to all existent forms of being.&lt;br /&gt;		To arrive at this reality common to all beings, or rather, which is identical in all beings, it is necessary to eliminate all forms of reality which belong to one category only among beings.&lt;br /&gt;		We pay attention to the elements only, but to all the elements, which are common to all beings. Such elements are, e.g. the origin, the growth, the changes, the destruction, or the achievement of the beings, passive and active causality, and particularly the nature of the being as such supporting those universal phenomena. These elements constitute the object of metaphysical knowledge, that is to say, of knowledge embracing all the physical or the real.&lt;br /&gt;		Metaphysics does not treat of the abstract or the unreal: these are but its notions, its definitions, its laws, which are abstract and general, as the notions, definitions and laws of every science always are.&lt;br /&gt;		Christian thought in the West, having adopted the terminology of Greek philosophy and perhaps under its influence, has defined this reality common to all beings, or, as one should perhaps say, being as such; &amp;quot;the reality that is&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;anything that exists&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;what is&amp;quot;. Its metaphysics has most generally been based upon a fundamentally static conception of being.&lt;br /&gt;		Herein is to be seen the fundamental difference between Western thought and that of the Bantu and other primitive people. (I compare only systems which have inspired widespread &amp;quot;civilizations&amp;quot;).&lt;br /&gt;		We can conceive the transcendental notion of &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; by separating it from its attribute, &amp;quot;Force&amp;quot;, but the Bantu cannot. &amp;quot;Force&amp;quot; in his thought is a necessary element in &amp;quot;being&amp;quot;, and the concept &amp;quot;force&amp;quot; is inseparable from the definition of &amp;quot;being&amp;quot;. There is no idea among Bantu of &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; divorced from the idea of &amp;quot;force&amp;quot;. Without the element &amp;quot;force&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; cannot be conceived.&lt;br /&gt;		We hold a static conception of &amp;quot;being&amp;quot;, they a dynamic. What has been said above should be accepted as the basis [35] of Bantu ontology: in particular, The concept &amp;quot;force&amp;quot; is bound to the concept &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; even in the most abstract thinking upon the notion of being.&lt;br /&gt;		At least it must be said that the Bantu have a double concept concerning being, a concept which can be expressed: &amp;quot;being is that which has force&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		But I think we must go further. Our statement of Bantu philosophy should press as closely as possible its distinctive characteristics. It seems to me that we shall not attain this precision by formulating the notion of being in Bantu thought as &amp;quot;being is that which possesses force&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		I believe that we should most faithfully render the Bantu thought in European language by saying that Bantu speak, act, live as if, for them, beings were forces. Force is not for them an adventitious, accidental reality. Force is even more than a necessary attribute of beings: Force is the nature of being, force is being, being is force&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		When we think in terms of the concept &amp;quot;being&amp;quot;, they use the concept &amp;quot;force&amp;quot;. Where we see concrete beings, they see concrete forces. When we say that &amp;quot;beings&amp;quot; are differentiated by their essence or nature, Bantu say that &amp;quot;forces&amp;quot; differ in their essence or nature. They hold that there is the divine force, celestial or terrestrial forces, human forces, animal forces, vegetable and even material or mineral forces.&lt;br /&gt;		The reader will be able to form his own opinion at the end of this study as to the validity, the exact worth of this hypothesis: in contradistinction to our definition of being as &amp;quot;that which is&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;the thing insofar as it is&amp;quot;, the Bantu definition reads, &amp;quot;that which is force&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;the thing insofar as it is force&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;an existent force&amp;quot;. We must insist once again that &amp;quot;force&amp;quot; is not for Bantu a necessary, irreducible attribute of being: no, the notion &amp;quot;force&amp;quot; takes for them the place of the notion &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; in our philosophy. Just as we have, so have they a transcendental, elemental, simple concept: with them &amp;quot;force&amp;quot;, with us &amp;quot;being&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. It can rightly be said that the Bantu regard being as exclusively or essentially a &amp;quot;principle of activity&amp;quot;. This term is borrowed from our scientific and therefore more philosophical terminology. One must on that account be careful not to understand it in relation to our static concepts of being, but in accordance with Bantu thought wherein this same principle is regarded as realising itself more or less in itself.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[36]&lt;br /&gt;		It is because all being is force and exists only in that it is force, that the category &amp;quot;force&amp;quot; includes of necessity all &amp;quot;beings&amp;quot;: God, men living and departed, animals, plants, minerals. Since being is force, all these beings appear to the Bantu as forces. This universal concept is hardly used by the Bantu, but they are susceptible to philosophical abstractions though they express them in concrete terms only. They give a name to each thing, but the inner life of these things presents itself to their minds as such specific forces and not at all as static reality&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		It would be a misuse of words to call the Bantu &amp;quot;dynamists&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;energists&amp;quot;, as if the universe were animated by some universal force, a sort of unique magical power encompassing all existence, as certain authors seem to believe, judging from their treatment of &amp;quot;mana&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;bwanga&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;kanga&amp;quot;. Such is an European presentation of a primitive philosophy that is but imperfectly understood. The Bantu make a clear distinction and understand an essential difference between different beings, that is to say, different forces. Among the different kinds of forces they have come to recognize, just as we do, unity, individuality but individuality clearly understood as meaning individuality of forces&amp;sup2;.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		That is why it seems to me necessary to reject as foreign to Bantu philosophy the dualism of good and evil as two forces; and also what has been called &amp;quot;common being&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;community of nature&amp;quot;, when these terms are so used as to eliminate the individuality of forces.&lt;br /&gt;		In the category of visible beings the Bantu distinguish that which is perceived by the senses and the &amp;quot;thing in itself&amp;quot;. By the &amp;quot;thing in itself&amp;quot; they indicate its individual inner nature, or, more precisely, the force of the thing. They are expressing themselves in figurative language when they say &amp;quot;in every thing there is another thing; in every man a little man&amp;quot;. But one would grossly deceive oneself in wishing to attribute to this&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. A missionary to the Ubangi (Belgian Congo) writes to me: &amp;quot;My researches in linguistics confirm in my mind how universally African your study is. Among the Ngbaka the &amp;quot;substantive&amp;quot; indicates a thing less as &amp;quot;that&amp;quot; than as &amp;quot;thus&amp;quot;. We contemplate the &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; of the thing, they its &amp;quot;force&amp;quot;. It is the extent, more or less, to which a thing is vital force that constitutes for them the &amp;quot;being&amp;quot; of the thing.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2. The Du. reads, &amp;quot;units or individuals standing by themselves, each of them being a force apart.&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[no page number]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;624&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Warega.gif&quot; width=&quot;482&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Figure in Ivory.&lt;br /&gt;			Hght: 0.20 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			WAREGA . Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[37]&lt;br /&gt;		piece of imagery any exact verbal expression of the Bantu notion of being. Their allegory merely brings into relief the distinction they make between the contingent, the visible phenomenon of being or of force, and the intrinsic visible nature of that force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When &amp;quot;we&amp;quot; differentiate in man the soul and the body, as is done in certain Western writings, we are at a loss to explain where &amp;quot;the man&amp;quot; has gone after these two components have been separated out. If, from our European outlook, we wish to seek Bantu terms adequate to express this manner of speaking, we are up against very great difficulties, especially if we are proposing to speak about the soul of man. Unless under European influence, the Bantu do not thus express themselves. They distinguish in man body, shadow and breath. This breath is the assumed manifestation, the evident sign, of life, though it is mortal and in no way corresponds with what we understand by the soul, especially the soul as subsisting after death, when the body with its shadow and its breath will have disappeared. What lives on after death is not called by the Bantu by a term indicating part of a man. I have always heard their elders speak of &amp;quot;the man himself&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;himself&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;aye mwine&amp;quot;; or it is &amp;quot;the little man&amp;quot; who was formerly hidden behind the perceptible manifestation of the man; or the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, which, at death, has left the living.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It seems to me incorrect to translate this word &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; by &amp;quot;the man&amp;quot;. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; certainly possesses a visible body, but this body is not the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. A Bantu one day explained to one of my colleagues that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is rather what you call in English the &amp;quot;person&amp;quot; and not what you connote by &amp;quot;the man&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;Muntu&amp;quot; signifies, then, vital force, endowed with intelligence and will. This interpretation gives a logical meaning to the statement which I one day received from a Bantu: &amp;quot;God is a great muntu&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;Vidye i muntu mukatampe&amp;quot;). This meant &amp;quot;God is the great Person&amp;quot; ; that is to say, The great, powerful and reasonable living force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The &amp;quot;bintu&amp;quot; are rather what we call things; but according to Bantu philosophy they are beings, that is to say forces not endowed with reason, not living.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[38]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;b) All force can be strengthened or enfeebled. That is to say, all being can become stronger or weaker.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We say of a man that he grows, develops, acquires knowledge, exercises his intelligence and his will; and that in so doing he increases them. We do not hold that by these acquisitions and by this development he has become more a man; at least, not in the sense that his human nature no longer remains what it was. One either has human nature or one hasn&amp;#39;t. It is not a thing that is increased or diminished. Development operates in a man&amp;#39;s qualities or in his faculties.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Bantu ontology &amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;or, to be more exact, the Bantu theory of forces &amp;mdash;-&amp;nbsp;is radically opposed to any such conception. When a Bantu says &amp;quot;I am becoming stronger&amp;quot;, he is thinking of something quite different from what we mean when we say that our powers are increasing. Remember that, for the Bantu, being is force and force being. When he says that a force is increasing, or that a being is reinforced, his thought must be expressed in our language and according to our mental outlook as &amp;quot;this being has grown as such&amp;quot;, his nature has been made stronger, increased, made greater. What Catholic theology teaches concerning, in particular, the supernatural realities of grace, that it is a supernal reinforcement of our being, that it is able to grow and to be strengthened in itself, is an idea similar to what the Bantu accept in the natural order as true of all being, of all force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This is the sense in which it seems that we should understand the expressions which have been quoted to show that the behaviour of the Bantu is centred on the idea of vital energy: &amp;quot;to be strong&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;to reinforce your life&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;you are powerful&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;be strong&amp;quot;; or again, &amp;quot;your vital force is declining, has been affected&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is in this sense also that we must understand Fraser, when he writes in the &amp;quot;Golden Bough&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;The soul like the body can be fat or thin, great or small&amp;quot; ; or again, &amp;quot;the diminution of the shadow is considered to be the index of a parallel enfeeblement in the vital energy of its owner&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The same idea again is envisaged by M. E. Possoz when he writes in his &amp;quot;Elements of Negro Customary Law&amp;quot;: &amp;quot;For the&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The references are to pp. 179 and 191 of the abridged (I vol. edition). (C.K.).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[39]&lt;br /&gt;		African, existence is a thing of variable intensity&amp;quot;; and further on when he mentions &amp;quot;the diminution or the reinforcement of being&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We must speak next of the existence of things or of forces. The origin, the subsistence or annihilation of beings or of forces, is expressly and exclusively attributed to God. The term &amp;quot;to create&amp;quot; in its proper connotation of &amp;quot;to evoke from not being&amp;quot; is found in its full signification in Bantu terminology (kupanga in Kiluba). It is in this sense that the Bantu see, in the phenomenon of conception, a direct intervention of God in creating life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Those who think that, according to the Bantu, one being can entirely annihilate another, to the point that he ceases to exist, conceive a false idea. Doubtless one force that is greater than another can paralyse it, diminish it, or even cause its operation totally to cease, but for all that the force does not cease to exist. Existence which comes from God cannot be taken from a creature by any created force.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		c) The interaction of forces: One being influencing another.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We speak of the mechanical, chemical and psychical interactions between beings. Realists and idealists meet in recognizing yet another causality conditioning being itself, the cause of the existence of being as such. It is a metaphysical causality which binds the creature to the Creator. The relationship of the creature to the Creator is a constant. I mean to say that the creature is by his nature permanently dependent upon his Creator for existence and means of survival. We do not conceive of any equivalent relationship between creatures. Created beings are denoted in scholastic philosophy as substances, that is to say, beings who exist, if not by themselves, at any rate in themselves, in se, non in alio. The child is, from birth, a new being, a complete human being. It has the fulness of human nature and its human existence as such is independent of that of its progenitors. The human nature of a child does not remain in permanent causal relationship with that of its parents.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This concept of separate beings, of substance (to use the Scholastic term again) which find themselves side by side, entirely independent one of another, is foreign to Bantu thought. Bantu [40] hold that created beings preserve a bond one with another, an intimate ontological relationship, comparable with the causal tie which binds creature and Creator. For the Bantu there is interaction of being with being, that is to say, of force with force. Transcending the mechanical, chemical and psychological interactions, they see a relationship of forces which we should call ontological. In the created force (a contingent being) the Bantu sees a causal action emanating from the very nature of that created force and influencing other forces. One force will reinforce or weaken another. This causality is in no way supernatural in the sense of going beyond the proper attributes of created nature. It is, on the contrary, a metaphysical causal action which flows out of the very nature of a created being. General knowledge of these activities belongs to the realm of natural knowledge and constitutes philosophy properly so called. The observation of the action of these forces in their specific and concrete applications would constitute Bantu natural science.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This interaction of beings has been denoted by the word &amp;quot;magic&amp;quot;. If it is desired to keep the term, it must be modified so that it is understood in conformity with the content of Bantu thought. In what Europeans call &amp;quot;primitive magic&amp;quot; there is, to primitive eyes, no operation of supernatural, indeterminate forces, but simply the interaction between natural forces, as they were created by God and as they were put by him at the disposal of men.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In their studies of magic, authors distinguish &amp;quot;imitative magic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;sympathetic magic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;contagious magic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;magic of expressed desire&amp;quot;, etc. Whatever the resemblance, contact, or the expression of desire, does not arise out of the essence of what is indicated by magic, that is to say, the interaction of creatures. The very fact that there should have been recourse to different terms to distinguish the &amp;quot;kinds&amp;quot;&amp;sup1; of magic, proves that any attempt to penetrate to the real nature of magic has been given up in favour of a classification in terms of secondary characters only.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The child, even the adult, remains always for the Bantu a&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;esp&amp;egrave;ces&amp;quot; (inverted commas in the original). The word is used in two senses: a) referring to the different &amp;quot; kinds&amp;quot; of magic named by older anthropologists and quoted above; b) indicating that these &amp;quot;kinds&amp;quot; are in truth manifestations or &amp;quot;appearances&amp;quot; only of the inadequately conceived reality underlying magic of all kinds. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[41]&lt;br /&gt;		man, a force, in causal dependence and ontological subordination to the forces which are his father and mother. The older force ever dominates the younger. It continues to exercise its living influence over it. This is said to give a first example of the Bantu conception in accordance with which the &amp;quot;beings-forces&amp;quot; of the universe are not a multitude of independent forces placed in juxtaposition from being to being. All creatures are found in relationship according to the laws of a hierarchy that I shall describe later. Nothing moves in this universe of forces without influencing other forces by its movement. The world of forces is held like a spider&amp;#39;s web of which no single thread can be caused to vibrate without shaking the whole network.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It has been maintained that &amp;quot;beings&amp;quot; only acquire &amp;quot;power&amp;quot; to act upon other beings or forces through the intervention of spirits and manes. This contention emanates from European observers, it does not exist in the minds of Africans. The dead intervene on occasion to make known to the living the nature and quality of certain forces, but they do not thereby change that nature or those qualities which are preordained as belonging to that force. Africans expressly say that creatures are forces, created by God as such; and that the intervention of spirits or manes changes nothing: such changes are a White man&amp;#39;s idea.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;d) The hierarchy of forces: Primogeniture.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		As with Indian castes and as the Israelites distinguished the &amp;quot;pure&amp;quot; from the &amp;quot;impure&amp;quot;, so beings are differentiated in Bantu ontology into species according to their vital power (&amp;quot;levenskracht&amp;quot;) or their inherent vital rank (&amp;quot;levensrang&amp;quot;). Above all force is God, Spirit and Creator, the mwine bukomo bwandi. It is he who has force, power, in himself. He gives existence, power of survival and of increase, to other forces. In relation to other forces, he is &amp;quot;He who increases force&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;. After him come the first fathers of men, founders of the different clans. These archipatriarchs were the first to whom God communicated his vital force, with the power of exercising their influences on all posterity.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;versterker&amp;quot;. For a note on the Dutch terminology here employed&lt;br /&gt;		see p. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[42]&lt;br /&gt;		They constitute the most important chain binding men to God. They occupy so exalted a rank in Bantu thought that they are not regarded merely as ordinary dead. They are no longer named among the manes; and by the Baluba they are called bavidye, spiritualised beings, beings belonging to a higher hierarchy, participating to a certain degree in the divine Force&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		After these first parents come the dead of the tribe, following their order of primogeniture. They form a chain, through the links of which the forces of the elders exercise their vitalising influence on the living generation. Those living on earth rank, in fact, after the dead. The living belong in turn to a hierarchy, not simply following legal status, but as ordered by their own being in accordance with primogeniture and their vital rank; that is to say, according to their vital power.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		But man is not suspended in thin air. He lives on his land, where he finds himself to be the sovereign vital force, ruling the land and all that lives on it: man, animal, or plant. The eldest of a group or of a clan is, for Bantu, by Divine law the sustaining link of life, binding ancestors and their descendants. It is he who &amp;quot;reinforces&amp;quot; the life of his people and of all inferior forces, animal, vegetable and inorganic, that exist, grow, or live on the foundation which he provides for the welfare of his people. The true chief, then, following the original conception and political set up of clan peoples, is the father, the master, the king; he is the source of all zestful living; he is as God himself. This explains what the Bantu mean when they protest against the nomination of a chief, by government intervention, who is not able, by reason of his vital rank or vital force, to be the link binding dead and living. &amp;quot;Such an one cannot be chief. It is impossible. Nothing would grow in our soil, our women would bear no children and everything would be struck sterile.&amp;quot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		Such consider&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;1. The language of the Bantu would cause one to think that they identify the founders of the clan with God himself. It so happens that they call both by the same name. There is, however, no identification, but a simple comparison, a practice analagous to that in which a Chief&amp;#39;s deputy is treated as the Chief himself, since he is his sensory manifestation and his speech is often the word of him who sent him.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We often hear an African say to someone who has befriended him: &amp;quot;You are my father and mother, you are my supreme Chief. You are my God.&amp;quot; Often, too, Africans have called me &amp;quot;Syakapanga&amp;quot; (Creator). They were in this way expressing their conviction that I was His word-bearer, His messenger to them.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[43]&lt;br /&gt;		ations and such despair are entirely mysterious and incomprehensible so long as we have not grasped the Bantu conception of existence and their interpretation of the universe. Judged, how-ever, according to the theory of forces, their point of view becomes logical and clear.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		After the category of human forces come the other forces, animal, vegetable and mineral. But within each of these categories is found a hierarchy based on vital power, rank and primogeniture.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		From that it follows that an analogy can be found between a human and a lower group (e.g. in the animal class), an analogy based on the relative place of these groups in relation to its own class. Such would be an analogy founded on primogeniture or upon a pre-determined order of subordination. A human group and an animal species can occupy in their respective classes a rank relatively equal or relatively different. Their vital rank can be parallel or different. A Chief in the class of humans shows his royal rank by wearing the skin of a royal animal. The respect for this ranking in life, the care not to place oneself higher than one&amp;#39;s legitimate place, the necessity not to approach the higher forces as if they were our equals, all that can supply the key to the so much disputed problem of &amp;quot;tabu&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;totem&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		e)&amp;nbsp;The Created Universe is centred on man: The present human generation living on earth is the centre of all humanity, including the world of the dead.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The Jews had no precise views of the beyond, nothing more than that of compensation in the future life for earthly merit. The idea of bliss became known to them a short time only before the coming of Christ. &amp;quot;Sheol&amp;quot; was a desolate region; and sojourn there seemed a gloomy business, offering little enough to attract those who had the good fortune to be still living on earth.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In the minds of the Bantu, the dead also live; but theirs is a diminished life, with reduced vital energy. This seems to be the conception of the Bantu when they speak of the dead in general, superficially and in regard to the external things of life. When they consider the inner reality of being, they admit that deceased ancestors have not lost their superior reinforcing [44] influence; and that the dead in general have acquired a greater knowledge of life and of vital or natural force. Such deeper knowledge as they have in fact been able to learn concerning vital and natural forces they use only to strengthen the life of man on earth. The same is true of their superior force by reason of primogeniture, which can be employed only to reinforce their living posterity. The dead forbear who can no longer maintain active relationships with those on earth is &amp;quot;completely dead&amp;quot;, as Africans say. They mean that this individual vital force, already diminished by decease, has reached a zero diminution of energy, which becomes completely static through lack of faculty to employ its vital influence on behalf of the living. This is held to be the worst of disasters for the dead themselves. The spirits of the dead (&amp;quot;manes&amp;quot;) seek to enter into contact with the living and to continue living function upon earth.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Inferior forces, on the other hand (animal, plant, mineral) exist only, and by the will of God, to increase the vital force of men while they are on earth. Higher and lower forces, therefore, are thought of by the Bantu in relation to living human forces. For this reason I have preferred to call the influences of one created being upon another causal agencies of life, rather than causal agencies of being &amp;sup1;, or of force as we have provisionally termed them. In fact, even inferior beings, such as inanimate beings and minerals, are forces which by reason of their nature have been put at the disposal of men, of living human forces, or of men&amp;#39;s vital forces.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The white man, a new phenomenon in the Bantu world, could be conceived only according to pre-existing categories of Bantu thought. He was therefore incorporated into the universe of forces, in the position therein which was congruent with the logic of Bantu ontology. The technological skill of the white man impressed the Bantu. The white man seemed to be the master of great natural forces. It had, therefore, to be admitted that the white man was an elder, a superior human force, surpassing the vital force of all Africans. The vital force of the white man is such that against it the &amp;quot;manga&amp;quot;, or the application of active natural forces at the disposition of Africans, was without effect.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		1. Du. &amp;quot;liever levensinvloeden dan wesensinvloeden&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;608&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Naperest.gif&quot; width=&quot;458&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Nape-rest in Ivory.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;			Orange-red.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;			Hght: 0.16 cm.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;			Wazimba. Belgian Congo.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;			Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[45]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;f) The General Laws of Vital Causality.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		After what we have said upon the question of &amp;quot;force beings&amp;quot;&amp;sup1; grouped in respect of their natures, of intensity of life class by class, and of the precedence according to primogeniture, it will be now clear that, among clan peoples, the universe of forces is organically constructed in what we can call an ontological hierarchy. The interaction of forces and the exercise of vital influences occurs, in fact, according to determined laws. The Bantu universe is not a chaotic tangle of unordered forces blindly struggling with one another. Nor must we believe that this theory of forces is the incoherent product of a savage imagination, or that the action of the same force can be now propitious and now pernicious, without a determining power to justify the fact. Doubtless there are force influences acting in this unforeseeable manner, but this assertion does not allow the conclusion that action occurs in a manner scientifically unpredictable, in a totally irrational mode. When a motor-car breaks down, one can say that this event was not determined in advance by what constitutes the essential nature of a motor-car, but we do not on that account believe ourselves obliged to deny the correctness and validity of the laws of mechanics. On the contrary, the breakdown itself can be explained only by adequate application of these very laws. The same is true of the laws of the interaction of forces. There are possible and necessary actions, other influences are metaphysically impossible by reason of the nature of the forces in question. The possible causal factors in life can be formulated in certain meta-physical, universal, immutable and stable laws.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These laws can, I think, be set out as follows:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		I. Man (living or deceased) can directly reinforce or diminish the being of another man.&lt;br /&gt;		Such vital influence is possible from man to man: it is indeed necessarily effective as between the&amp;nbsp;progenitor a superior vital force,&amp;mdash;and his progeny&amp;mdash;an inferior force.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		This interaction does not occur only when the recipient object is endowed, in respect of the endowing&amp;nbsp;subject, with&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;&amp;ecirc;tres-forces&amp;quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;a superior force, which he may achieve of himself, or by some vital external influence, or (especially) by &amp;nbsp;the action of God.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		II. The vital human force can directly influence inferior forcebeings (animal, vegetable, or mineral) in &amp;nbsp;their&amp;nbsp;being itself.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	III. A rational being (spirit, manes, or living) can act indirectly upon another rational being by communicating his vital influence to an inferior force (animal, vegetable, or mineral) through the intermediacy of which it influences the rational being. This influence will also have the character of a necessarily effective action, save only when the object is inherently the stronger force, or is reinforced by the influence of some third party, or preserves himself by recourse to inferior forces exceeding those which his enemy is employing.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;Note:&lt;/span&gt;&amp;nbsp;Certain authors claim that inanimate beings, stones, rocks, or plants and trees are called by the Bantu &amp;quot;bwanga&amp;quot;, as exercising their vital influence on all that comes near them. If this were authenticated, it would open the question: &amp;quot;do lower forces act by themselves upon higher forces?&amp;quot; Some authors say that they do. For my part, I have never met any African who would accept this hypothesis. A priori, such an occurrence would seem to me to contradict the general principles of the theory of forces. In Bantu metaphysic the lower force is excluded from exercising by its own initiative any vital action upon a higher force. Besides, in giving their examples, these authors ought to recognize that often a living influence has been at work, for example, that of the manes. Likewise certain natural phenomena, rocks, waterfalls, big trees, can be considered-and are considered by the Bantu-as manifestations of divine power; they can also be the sign, the manifestation, the habitat of a spirit. It seems to me that such should be the explanation of the apparent influences of lower forces on the higher force of man. Those lower beings do not exercise their influence of themselves, but through the vital energy of a higher force acting as cause. Such an explanation accords in all cases with Bantu metaphysic. Such manifestations belong to the third law enunciated above.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;		[47]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER III&lt;br /&gt;		BANTU WISDOM OR CRITERIOLOGY&amp;sup1;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;I. What is Bantu wisdom?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		It consists in the Bantu&amp;#39;s discernment of the nature of beings, of forces: true wisdom lies in ontological knowledge. The Sage &amp;quot;par excellence&amp;quot; is God, who knows every being, Who compre-hends the nature and the quality of the energy of each&amp;sup2;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		God is Force, possessing energy in himself, the mover of all other forces. He knows all forces, their ordering, their dependence, their potential and their mutual interactions. He knows, therefore, the cause of every event. Vidye uyukile: God knows. Such is the ultimate reference of the Baluba in face of every insoluble problem, before every inescapable evil; and each time that human wisdom is taken to the court of reason.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In the administration of justice, when all human presumptions agree to crush an innocent litigant deprived of means to prove his case, he will protest: Vidye uyukile! God knows: God, who knows every deed and the true man in the intimacy of his being, knows my innocence.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Criteriology: Du. kennisleer, Fr. criteriologie. See N.E.D. &amp;quot;the doctrine of a criterion (of knowledge, etc.) quoting one example of it from the &amp;quot;Atheneum&amp;quot;, 14th July, 1884: &amp;quot;the relation of thought to reality as regards its validity&amp;quot;. (C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2. I abe Shayuka uyuka dyuba ne bufuku: Thou art the Father or knowledge, thou knowest the day and the night.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[48]&lt;br /&gt;		When the manga, the magic strengtheners of being, fail, the remedy maker will say Vidye wakoma. God is strong&amp;sup1;. This means: He is stronger than my remedies. But those pagans who, while accepting the principle of vital interactions, do not believe in certain concrete applications or proposed remedies will say, in resigning themselves to an evil, the cause of which is escaping them: Vidye uyukile: God knows (yet he allows it).&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Nothing in fact happens without the permission of the Strongest One. The sentence &amp;quot;He knows&amp;quot; certainly means &amp;quot;He understands the occurrence&amp;quot;, but it means more often, &amp;quot;He has his reasons&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		God knows. He gives man &amp;quot;power&amp;quot; to know. Let us remember that all being is force, that each of its faculties is a force. There is, therefore, the force of knowing, just as there is a force of willing. Therefore men have the power of knowing. There are above all the ancestors, the ba-vidye, and among them the elders, dead or living, who know. &amp;quot;It is they who started things&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		True knowledge, human wisdom, then, will equally be metaphysical: it will be the intelligence of forces, of their hierarchy, their cohesion and their interaction.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		I have stated the primacy of ancestors, the elders. In fact, just as the vital human force (its being) does not exist by itself, but is and remains essentially dependent upon its elders, so the power to know is, like being itself, essentially dependent upon the wisdom of the elders.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		How often in a village, when one wishes to question Bantu about some happening&amp;mdash;a law suit or a custom, or even some geographical or geological data&amp;mdash;does not one provoke the reply: &amp;quot;We younger ones do not know: it is the elders who know.&amp;quot; That happens even when the matter in question is, as we think, something which they know all about. Nevertheless, as they think, they do not know, because they are young, because they do not know of or by themselves. Ontologically and juridically the elders who hold the ascendancy are the only ones to know fully, in the last resort. Their wisdom exceeds that of other men. It is in this sense that the old say: &amp;quot;The young cannot know&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;wanneer manga-&amp;quot;magische&amp;quot; versterkingsmiddelen-niet baten zal de manga-man zeggen: Vidye wakoma, God is sterk, d.i. sterker dan mijn manga.&amp;quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[49]&lt;br /&gt;		without the elders.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;If it were not for the elders,&amp;quot; the Bantu say again, &amp;quot;if the young were left to themselves, the village would get nowhere. The young would no longer know how to live: they would have neither customs, laws, nor wisdom any longer. They would stray into disaster.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Study and the personal search for knowledge does not give wisdom. One can learn to read, to write, to count: to manage a motor car, or learn a trade; but all that has nothing in common with &amp;quot;wisdom&amp;quot;. It gives no ontological knowledge of the nature of beings. There are many talents and clever skills that remain far short of wisdom.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		That is how the Bantu speak of their traditional wisdom.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us now see how we Europeans would set out to give a reasoned exposition of Bantu wisdom and of their system of criteriology.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. Metaphysics, or the Philosophy of Forces, is within the capacity of every Bantu.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The philosophy of forces is a theory of life, a weltanschaung. It is possible that it may have been devised to justify a given behaviour, or that a particular adaptation of nature may have conditioned this behaviour, but always the philosophy of forces strictly governs in fact the whole of Bantu life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It explains the human motivations of all Bantu customs. It decrees the norms in accordance with which personality in the individual shall be kept unaltered or allowed to develop&amp;sup1;. This does not mean that every Bantu is able to enumerate the cardinal truths of his philosophy, but it is not less true that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; who neglects to orientate his life in accordance with the ancient norms laid down by Bantu wisdom will be treated as &amp;quot;kidima&amp;quot; by his fellows: that is to say as a sub-human, a man of insuffi&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;Maar het is toch zeker, dat een muntu, die zijn leven niet richt naar algemeene lijnen van de eeuwenoude Bantu filosofie, door de Bantu zelf voor kidima uitgemaakt wordt, voor een mensch die niet voldoende verstand bezit om als volledig, normaal mensch door de gaan, dus voor een minus habens.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;This does not mean that every muntu can say off hand the ten cardinal truths of his philosophy of life, but it is certain that a muntu who does not order his life according to the general rules of the age old Bantu philosophy will be called kidima by the Bantu themselves as a man who has not enough brains to be considered a normal person, therefore as a minus habens.&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[50]&lt;br /&gt;		cient mind to count as a &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. The normal &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; knows his philosophy, he recognizes the forces in beings&amp;sup1;. He knows about the growth of beings and their ontological influences. He notes the operation of the general laws of cause and effect between living forces which we treated above in the chapter on Bantu ontology. This ontology, inasmuch as it remains universal and truly philosophical knowledge, is the common property of the whole Bantu society. This universal wisdom is accepted by everyone, it is not subjected to criticism, it has currency, in regard to its general principles, as imperishable Truth.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The ethnological views which have been set out in this book do not constitute a secret knowledge confined to a few savants or initiates. We have set down only the popular wisdom of the common man.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. Bantu philosophy is based on internal and external evidence.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		If the Bantu so generally accept their present beliefs free from doubt, that is because-they say-their wisdom is engendered in them at the same time as their living force by their parents and ancestors, who continue to instruct them by means of divination. Songs, fables, mythological traditions and ceremonies of initiation assure instruction in Bantu thought. However, they draw other arguments from their own experience. Since their ancestors proceeded from God himself, should not they have a longer knowledge than they themselves? Besides, their ancestors lived by this philosophy, preserved and handed down life through their recourse to these natural forces, and saved the Bantu people from destruction. Consequently their wisdom seems sound and sufficient. Moreover, this practical wisdom is so completely adapted by the elders to the needs of life that no problem is, so to speak, left unanswered; and that a prescription is provided for every eventuality: this, to the minds of the Bantu, affords proof of the fundamental and realistic soundness of their philosophy. Thus Mgr. Leroy says in &amp;quot;La Religion des Primitifs&amp;quot; that the Bantu sees himself engaged in a constant struggle with the forces&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Better, according to the Du.&amp;quot;beings as forces&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;wesens als krachten&amp;quot;. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[51]&lt;br /&gt;		of nature which surround him; and he emerges from this struggle, now as victor, now as vanquished. He establishes every day the existence of hidden forces in plants and herbs. For primitive minds, these considerations furnish adequate grounds of proof of the validity of their philosophy of forces and of the concept of beings as forces. To see that natural forces are some times potent and sometimes ineffective is enough to justify to him the inference that a being, that is to say a force, can now strengthen and now weaken, that a being&amp;#39;s force can become inoperative, that the bwanga can &amp;quot;depart&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;grow cold&amp;quot;, or be &amp;quot;trampled under foot&amp;quot;, as they put it.&lt;br /&gt;		So the criteriology of the Bantu rests upon external evidence, upon the authority and dominating life force of the ancestors. It rests at the same time upon the internal evidence of experience of nature and of living phenomena, observed from their point of view. No doubt, anyone can show the error of their reasoning; but it must none the less be admitted that their notions are based on reason, that their criteriology and their wisdom belong to rational knowledge.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;4. The Bantu differentiate philosophy from the natural sciences.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The transcendental and universal notions of being and of its force, of action, and of the relationships and reciprocal influences of beings make up Bantu philosophy. This domain is accessible to the ordinary intelligence of every normal &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		If one desired to ridicule this philosophy or to give a childish caricature of it, objecting that its concepts do not rest upon the discipline of rigorous scientific experience, it would be as well to take care not to commit oneself to arguments more ridiculous than the pretended stupidity of these primitive peoples themselves.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Is our philosophy based upon scientific experiment? Does it depend upon chemical analysis, on mechanics, or on anatomy? Natural sciences can no more refute a system of philosophy than they can create one. Our elders used to possess a systematised philosophy which the most advanced modern sciences have not broken down. Moreover, our ancestors came by their knowledge of being at a time when their experimental scientific knowledge [52] was very poor and defective, if not totally erroneous. The tool of empirical science is sense experience of visible realities, while philosophy goes off into intellectual contemplation of general realities concerning the invisible nature of beings. But no instrument exists for measuring the soul, though this fact does not exclude the possibility that experiences may occur in order to furnish intelligence with reasonable proof of the existence of the spiritual principle in life. It is the intellect that creates science. Indeed the experiments of the natural sciences, as also the generalizations of the philosopher ought to be made methodically and with discernment and analysed in accordance with sound logical reasoning. This presupposes always that one does not question the objective worth of intellectual knowledge. Happily, primitive peoples are no more tortured with doubt than our sub&amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s on the subject of the reality of intellectual knowledge, nor of the validity of human reasoning.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The subjective point of view of the Bantu founds the general principle and notion of being on the argument of authority and on their own observation of the constitution of the universe. That, I presume, is why this conception can be found among all the so-called non-civilized peoples. For the same reason it persists among educated natives and converts to Christianity.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The general conception of being which one may hold and the knowledge of the particular qualities of each individual being are two distinct things. It is not the duty of philosophy as such to include the defining of a particular being by describing its specific essence, energy, faculties, influences and properties. This belongs to the sphere of the natural sciences. And one can pose the question whether, within the natural sciences, unanimity has been achieved and the last word said upon the nature of the different natural forces which have so far been discovered.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Among the Bantu likewise, the same divergence of views and the same ignorance is to be found in regard to the imperfect knowledge of concrete objects with which they are in actual contact. They agree that many mysteries remain to be elucidated. Who but God can know everything, say our Bantu. God can give a name to each thing because he knows all beings. That is why the practical application of Bantu philosophy to the daily needs of life, to magical practices, differs from tribe to tribe and&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[no page number]&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;460&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/BalubaWood.gif&quot; width=&quot;586&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Blackened wood cup.&lt;br /&gt;			Width: 0.63 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			Baluba. Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[53]&lt;br /&gt;		from district to district. It also explains why, in comparing different territories, apparently contradictory proceedings can be observed, which none the less are but varied applications of the same general Bantu philosophical principles.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Beings, however, are known by their individual natures. So, as has already been observed above, the Bantu distinguish the external appearance of visible beings from the force and inner nature of beings themselves. But the inner, invisible force can concentrate or manifest itself more particularly in one part of the visible being. The vital force can be intensified and compacted and can exteriorise itself at what we may call a nodal point or vital centre. This vital centre, this nodal point, this particularised manifestation or sign of the vital force, is called &amp;quot;kijimba&amp;quot; by the Baluba. A wild beast may be pierced by ten arrows without dying, while another beast succumbs to the first shot. This is because the one arrow has touched the vital centre, or one of its vital centres.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Why is the crocodile so formidable a beast? Where is its murderous vital force centred if not in its ever-watchful eye that nothing escapes? And the symbol, the instrument endowed with the destructive vital force of Master Lion: where is it located? Obviously it must be in its ferocious tooth.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is, then, very natural, from the Bantu point of view, that if anyone wishes to take for himself, or to make use of, the vital force of an inferior being, he should try to procure for himself a like &amp;quot;kijimba&amp;quot; which signifies and materialises the vital relation between the other being and himself&amp;sup1;. It is, moreover, the &amp;quot;kijimba&amp;quot; that one finds as the chief element, the active principle, the source of energy in every &amp;quot;bwanga&amp;quot;. Knowledge of certain specified forces and particularly of the corresponding &amp;quot;bijimba&amp;quot; is spread in a relatively uniform manner among all Bantu. There are certain &amp;quot;bijimba&amp;quot; of especially powerful beings whose function is to add their force to the carrying out of certain habitual activities such as hunting or fishing. In these occupations one has expressly to measure one&amp;#39;s vital power against that of another living being.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The Du. adds: &amp;quot;Wordt elke levenshandeling bij de Bantu, elk levensverstand niet met een signum bewezen en bekrachtigd?&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Is not every transaction which is undertaken by Bantu, every engagement they enter into, indicated and ratified by a visible token?&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[54]&lt;br /&gt;		There is a struggle of the vital forces of the hunter and the prey. One must, therefore, be strong in combat and arm oneself with all the forces of attack, even those belonging to lower beings, in order to assure oneself of power to destroy the prey.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		There are certain general laws which enable one to know and to discover the vital forces and influences of certain beings. These are the &amp;quot;principles&amp;quot; which some authors present as active principles, principles of causality of the magic. In fact they are not the active causes in &amp;quot;magic&amp;quot; or in the employment of natural forces. They are simple signs which allow us to discover and know these natural forces. So one has read: &amp;quot;similia similibus curantur&amp;quot;. Ethnologists explain this by declaring that a force acts by likeness and by agreement. I have, I think, sufficiently explained that this likeness cannot be the causal foundation of vital influence. But the resemblance between the murderous force of the lion or of the crocodile and the intentions which actuate the hunter or the fisherman lead the Bantu to believe that the forces of these great carnivores can be used in the exercise of the trade of hunter or fisherman; or rather, in the struggle in which they engage respectively against the prey and the fish.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Another law says that the living being exercises a vital influence on everything that is subordinated to him and on all that belongs to him. That is why every injury to anything depending upon a person will be regarded, as has already been said, as a diminution of the being of that person himself. &amp;quot;All property is rich in mysterious influences,&amp;quot; said Burton in &amp;quot;L&amp;#39;&amp;acirc;me luba&amp;quot;. The fact that a thing has belonged to anyone, that it has been in strict relationship with a person, leads the Bantu to conclude that this thing shares the vital influence of its owner. It is what ethnologists like to call &amp;quot;contagious magic, sympathetic magic&amp;quot;; but it is neither contact nor &amp;quot;sympathy&amp;quot; that are the active elements, but solely the vital force of the owner, which acts, as one knows, because it persists in the being of the thing possessed or used by him.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		A third law allows the Bantu to recognize and discover vital forces or vital influences in certain cases. A living man&amp;#39;s words or his gesture are considered, more than any other manifestation, to be the formal expression or sign of his vital influence. From that, if words or gestures lead to favourable or unfavourable effects as [55] they are applied to a predetermined person, one may deduce therefrom that such a person exercises his vital influence, for good or ill, upon such other person. What one is in the habit of calling &amp;quot;magic of expressed wish&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;magic of mimicry&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;imitative magic&amp;quot;, indicates this kind of handiwork; but here, again, there are neither words nor mimicry that exercise a power, but only signs that externalise the action of the vital influence and make it known to third parties.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These three principles (maybe others will be discovered) fix the rules of research and of knowledge of concrete forces and of vital influences emanating from particular objects. They are in some kind the laws of the Bantu&amp;#39;s knowledge of the natural sciences; they are canons of judgment and in no way causes.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;5. The cleavage between the domains of certain knowledge and of uncertain science among the Bantu&amp;sup1;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		From what has been said we can note the cleavage between those principles and laws considered by the Bantu to be absolute and immutable and the domains of particular knowledge in which one feels one&amp;#39;s way in relativity, uncertainty and speculation.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The general notions treated in Chapter II of this book are regarded by Bantu as absolute and invariable. Their philosophical and ontological conceptions, so far as they are applicable to being in itself have, for the Bantu, absolute and necessary validity, admitting of no exceptions. It would, therefore, be fundamentally erroneous to suggest that the conceptions and principles of the Bantu are essentially variable, uncertain and arbitrary. Exactly the reverse is true, at least if one is able to adopt correctly their subjective point of view. Their metaphysic, like ours, proclaims universal and unchangeable laws.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Even the general laws of natural science, of physics, and in particular the three canons of judgment regarding knowledge of force-beings and their influence, have for the Bantu a quality of general validity.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The contrast between the two terms &amp;quot;certain knowledge&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;uncertain science&amp;quot; comes out more sharply, perhaps, in English than in French, but cf. Lalande, op. cit. p. 71 &amp;quot;approximatif&amp;quot;. The Du. is simpler: &amp;quot;Wat staat vast en wat is wisselvallig en onzeker in de kennis bij de Bantu?&amp;quot; &amp;quot;What is absolute and what is uncertain in Bantu knowledge?&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[56]&lt;br /&gt;		Nevertheless, when one comes down to the level of particular knowledge, the Bantu agree that one is in the realm of speculation and guessing, of skill and deftness.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		And so, to know what particular vital influence has attacked a man to cause his sickness, one consults a specialist in the science of the interference of forces. In the same way, to know what &amp;quot;kijimba&amp;quot; will be able to restore such an one, it is not enough to rely on one&amp;#39;s own knowledge, any more than to rely upon the counsel of the first person whom one may meet. In such cases, the wise thing to do is to consult a diviner. Just as not every one can read cards of be a palmist, so not everyone can be a diviner. The exercise of this skill presupposes special knowledge or, more precisely, the force to know.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;6. Is Bantu wisdom natural, super-normal or super-natural?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We call natural, such knowledge as man can acquire by the normal exercise of his faculties. Super-normal knowledge exceeds the needs and capacities of a human being, but not of a being created with a higher order of intelligence. Supernatural knowledge surpasses the capacity of every kind of created being.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		From what has been said above, especially as to the knowledge of the &amp;quot;force-being&amp;quot; among the Bantu, it seems that their philosophy, like ours, makes no claim to be more than the natural intellectual knowledge of beings. The general principles of the knowledge of forces and of influences also belongs to the realm of natural, empirical knowledge of the Bantu. Since the particular knowledge of the forces which have determined a given event, or the knowledge of a thing in its concrete nature and in its capacity for acting in respect of certain predetermined persons are only, for the Bantu, (it seems to me) natural knowledge deeper than usual; it is only in certain cases, when the direct or indirect intervention of God or of some other superior being is postulated, than one can speak of super-normal knowledge.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These are deductions from the principles of Bantu philosophy as they have been propounded above. They are worth just as much as the hypothesis of their ontology itself is worth. I believe, however, that these considerations entitle us to reckon as worthless the omnibus expressions that hamper ethnological research [57] when people are pleased to label established facts with such epithets as &amp;quot;mysterious&amp;quot; and with qualifications of &amp;quot;supernatural knowledge&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;indeterminate influences&amp;quot; and many like terms. In general, among the Bantu, we meet only with knowledge that can be routine or specialised, without ceasing on that account to be natural knowledge. In their view it is only in certain cases that one seems to be able to run up against supernormal knowledge.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It seems convenient to insert here a parenthesis on what is generally called &amp;quot;initiation&amp;quot; in ethnological litterature. The &amp;quot;kilumbu&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot;, that is to say the man who possesses a clearer than usual vision of natural forces and their interaction, the man who has the power of selecting these forces and of directing them towards a determinist usage in particular cases, becomes what he is only because he has been &amp;quot;seized&amp;quot; by the living influence of a deceased ancestor or of a spirit&amp;sup1;, or even because he has been &amp;quot;initiated&amp;quot; by another &amp;quot;kilumbu&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot;. The general principles of Bantu ontology carry the corollary that every man can be influenced by a wiser one. Any one who is thus &amp;quot;seized&amp;quot;, passes into a trance at the moment when the spirit or vidye possesses him, and it is at this moment that the neophyte acquires his superior force whereby to know and to direct forces. But in this phenomenon there is no question of initiation. Initiation occurs only when a candidate for &amp;quot;kilumbu&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot; goes to find &amp;quot;a man with manga&amp;quot; and asks to be trained in his art. Should initiation, then, consist in what the master &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot; tells his disciple (his child in manga, as the Baluba say) of the secrets of &amp;quot;sorcery and magic&amp;quot;? The &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot; can only teach his apprentice the different manipulations and ceremonies of his art, he can give him adequate training in the behaviour he ought to adopt in the higher life for which he is intended; he can teach him the means to get himself into the desired state such that he can acquire force and knowledge, but, as I venture to think, it does not lie within his power to give force or knowledge. To possess the real knowledge and power of manga, there will not be, according to the view of the Bantu, any initiation in the English sense&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;influence vitale d&amp;#39;un anc&amp;ecirc;tre pr&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute; ou d&amp;#39;un esprit...&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[58]&lt;br /&gt;		of the term. Only when the &amp;quot;master-nganga&amp;quot; has completed his work of educating the neophyte does the time arrive for his pupil to receive his power and his knowledge in the course of what has been wrongly called the &amp;quot;initiation ceremony&amp;quot;. I presume that it is universal in the Bantu world that in the course of this ceremony the initiate enters into a trance, loses consciousness and becomes as if dead to his ordinary human life, to be reborn from this catalepsy endowed with the superior force and the exalted knowledge of &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;kilumbu&amp;quot;. It is indeed under the living influence of his master that he is educated and reborn to this higher living force, but the force and the power which live in him come from a deceased ancestor or from a spirit, under the influence of whom his master equally acquired his power and his knowledge. Only in this way can one explain the case of one or another pupil who cannot be induced into trance or rapture. His master is obliged to send him away, saying to him &amp;quot;you are unsuitable&amp;quot;. It is therefore evident that a vital force must intervene superior to that of the master of forces, and that it is wrong to speak of &amp;quot;initiation&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These relationships, vital influences of the dead upon the living, are daily bread to the Bantu. In a greater or less degree these phenomena are familiar to every muntu: they live in communion with their dead and this living influence of the dead should not be adjuged supernormal according to the canons of our philosophy, but as a natural occurrence, as the normal ordering of events in the world of forces of Bantu philosophy. This is the point of view of the Bantu which the ethnologist should adopt.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;7. Is there among the Bantu a knowledge which is not magical, that is to say, that is not knowledge of force? Is their wisdom critical?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		It has been claimed (Alliert: &amp;quot;Le non-civilis&amp;eacute; et nous&amp;quot;) that the African reasons half as we do (that is to say in accordance with a critical reasoning associated with the nature of things) and that he then abandons all reasoning and gives himself up to magic.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[59]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		Thus it is indicated, for example, that Africans show themselves to be intelligent and reasonable in the weaving of their nets, the making of their traps and, more generally, in all their hunting crafts. They know what tools they should use to make efficient instruments, they employ an infallible logic to contrive their ambushes. Then suddenly, as some authors claim, they give up all reasoning in order to depend for the success of their hunt on the help of the spirit of hunting or of the huntsman&amp;#39;s bwanga. I think all the same that it is unsound to divide primitive man into two and to dub him inscrutable, illogical, or mysterious. It is possible that in gathering grasses, in retting them and in making baskets, fish-traps and other utensils out of them, the African sees no ontological agency at work. These are utilitarian crafts outside the sphere of wisdom or of vital force. Yet, one hears them say that these skills are given to them with their vital force. But they make a clear distinction between the aptitude to make a material object well and the power to devise instruments to overcome and capture other living beings. The first is mere child&amp;#39;s play, the second a vital work. We need not, then, be surprised to see the African go about his professional aptitudes &amp;quot;magically&amp;quot;, or to learn that he thinks while doing so of the vital forces which he is going to encounter. A man who is going to build a canoe would never for a moment cease to keep in mind his philosophy of forces. Any simple skill, moreover, as well as the practice of magic, is shot through and through with this dynamic conception of beings. This conception, however, is quite a different thing from magic, which is nothing but an evil practice equally prevalent amongst those who have a more static conception of beings and those whose philosophy is dynamic. Coppersmiths and blacksmiths think that they will not be able to smelt the ore, thereby changing the nature of the material treated, unless they dutifully appeal to a higher force which can dominate the vital force of the &amp;quot;earth&amp;quot; which they claim thus to change into metal. As for the huntsman, he is convinced that it is through a higher vital force that he has the genius at his command whereby to construct his weapons efficiently; and the dexterity to use them effectively in his combat with his captured prey. He thinks that it is his vital influence, reinforced by the power of the tutelary spirit of huntsmen which has led the prey into his gins. It would be difficult to find an activity or an event of any [60] importance in the lives of Africans which is not associated with their philosophy of forces by reason of their beliefs concerning vital influences.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The knowledge of Africans is not two-pronged&amp;sup1;. They do not have a separate criteriology of the philosophy of forces, side by side with the reasoning of a rational, critical philosophy. The philosophy of forces seems to them to inhere in their knowledge as a whole. They have no other conception of the world. Their philosophy directs all their activities and their inactivities. All consciously, their human behaviour is conditioned by their knowledge of being as force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Can we say that our philosophy alone is a realist or critical knowledge, while theirs is not? If we understand by a critical philosophy, a philosophy founded upon observation of reality and upon deductions which can be drawn from human experience, I claim that Bantu philosophy is, from their point of view and for the ends indicated above, a critical philosophy as rightly so called in our western systems. In their eyes, their philosophy rests upon internal and external evidence. If it were not so, it would be necessary to conclude that for lack of rational ends, their system would be the product of the merest fancy. But then the compact logic of their system would become an inexplicable miracle.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		For the rest, it may be asked whether it is possible to have a philosophy worthy of the name that is not the product of critical thinking. It is another matter to verify whether their observations have been made correctly; or whether their deductions do not conceal errors of reasoning. A system of philosophy may be called &amp;quot;critical&amp;quot; even if it should be proved fallacious. If the term &amp;quot;critical philosophy&amp;quot; be reserved exclusively for an exact and true concept of being, one system only of philosophy can exist; and it cannot be tolerated that differing systems of thought should have the word &amp;quot;philosophy&amp;quot; applied to them.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		1. Fr. &amp;quot;bifide&amp;quot;: lit. &amp;quot;cleft info two divisions&amp;quot;. The context here will not stand the technical &amp;quot;dualistic&amp;quot;. The English &amp;quot;bifid&amp;quot; (N.E.D.) is too unfamiliar, as also is &amp;quot;bifurcate&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;Two-pronged&amp;quot; suggests the required basic union with separation. (C.K.)&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[no page number]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;636&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Kuyn.gif&quot; width=&quot;404&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;blockquote&gt;		&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;			&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;				[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;				Male and female jugated.&lt;br /&gt;				Hght: 0.81 cm.&lt;br /&gt;				Wood painted in purple and white.&lt;br /&gt;				KUYN. French Congo.&lt;br /&gt;				Collection Charles Ratton Esq. Paris.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;				&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[61]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;8. Are the Bantu strangers to all experimental science?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		That is a summary way of asking the question. We believe it to be justified because it brings it out in the false light in which it stands.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When we speak of experience&amp;sup1;, we think of something different from what the Bantu understand by &amp;quot;experience&amp;quot;&amp;sup2;. In face of experience&amp;sup3; we come to reasoned conclusions in accordance with our criteriology and ontology. The Bantu believe that they come to valid conclusions following theirs. We understand causality in terms of our static metaphysics, the Bantu in terms of their philosophy of forces.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us take an example to illustrate this. The Bantu know by experience which herbs and plants operate to purify the blood, to get rid of worms, or as specifics against infection. They argue, &amp;quot;This plant, this herb is such and such a force.&amp;quot; This virtue acts no differently from all other forces, by vital influence. It can intensify or diminish... it acts only through the vital force of the strong, living man. Hence, therefore, the conditions, rites and incantations that are used when they have recourse to medicaments. It is not the first-comer, regardless of whom he may be, who will go to find a medicine. In order the better to assure the effective action of these forces, which are capable of being aroused, encouraged and directed, recourse is had to a person possessing special powers to this end. One seeks either the wisdom and skill of an &amp;quot;elder&amp;quot;, or the skill of a &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot;. This awakening, this excitation of forces, is an everyday event among the Baluba (&amp;quot;kulangwila miji&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;to stir up the roots&amp;quot;...) to the end that their virtues, their being, shall be active in aiding such and such a patient. In cases of failure, the inactivity of herbs which lack their curative power will be explained in terms of their principles of causal operation.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This confirms that among the Bantu all knowledge, even experimental knowledge, accords with their criteriology of forces and with their general laws concerning the growth and interdependence of forces.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The shading of meaning here is very subtle between &amp;quot;experience&amp;quot; and&lt;br /&gt;		2. &amp;quot;experiment&amp;quot;. The Du. reads, &amp;quot;I) experientie.., 2) experientie.. 3)&lt;br /&gt;		3. experimenteeren.&amp;quot; The Fr. translation reads &amp;quot;exp&amp;eacute;rience...exp&amp;eacute;rience... l&amp;#39;exp&amp;eacute;rience&amp;quot;. His attention having been drawn, the individual reader must decide for himself in each case how to shade his concepts (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[62 empty]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[63]&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER IV&lt;br /&gt;		THE THEORY OF &amp;quot;MUNTU&amp;quot; OR BANTU PSYCHOLOGY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		After having set out the Bantu conception of the world, their ontology and their criteriology, we must now examine their philosophical ideas on the subject of man. Only after doing so will it be possible for us to study their philosophy of human behaviour in their ethics and in their law.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;Introductory note&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The Bantu psychology which we are going to study is that which is to be found in the minds of Bantu themselves, not that which would result from the observation of Bantu by Europeans. It is necessary to see things from their point of view in order to understand the integration of this psychology into their general scheme of thought.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		If we were to start from our psychological standpoint to study the Bantu, we should be almost fatally frustrated. Anyone who, for instance, were to try to find the words which correspond in Bantu dialects with our notions of soul, mind, will, sentiment, etc. would be assuming that the Bantu divide men, as we do, into soul and body; and that they distinguish as we do the different faculties of the soul. This would not be a study of the psychology of the Bantu. On the contrary, it would deny the existence [64] of any such psychology, in supposing that it can be satisfactory to translate our terminology. To prevent such a false start, we must, on the contrary, make a clean sweep of our own psychological concepts and prepare ourselves to finish with a conception of man very different from that which we now accept. The best thing that we can do is to listen and to analyse what the Bantu say on the subject of this being whom we are accustomed to call a &amp;quot;rational animal&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Maybe the results will seem scanty and the objection will be raised that no complete psychology emerges. Certainly, we should inter for good many of our nice distinctions, for many of the subdivisions by which we Europeans set such store have no equivalent in Bantu thought. It seems to me, however, that it will be worth the trouble of setting down together some vigorous basic thoughts out of what has been gleaned from the Bantu in this matter. Although briefly set out, this information can serve as a prolegomenon to later researches probing more deeply into the realm of Bantu philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;A. The &amp;quot;Muntu&amp;quot;, or the person.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The notion of being, which the Bantu entertain with regard to all things, applying it to God as to created beings, has relevance and application also to human beings. This is apparent, moreover, in the language of the Bantu themselves.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Vital force, increase of force, vital influence are the three great notions which we shall find necessary at the base of Bantu psychology. It is on this plan that we wish to pursue this part of our study.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;1. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is a living force, a personal force.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu sees in man the living force; the force or the being that possesses life that is true, full and lofty. Man is the supreme force, the most powerful among created beings. He dominates plants, animals and minerals. These lower beings exist, by Divine decree, only for the assistance of the higher created being, man.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It would be tempting to enquire in what the Bantu find this [65] higher force to consist: to secure a more positive definition from them: to get to know in what principle they hold this vital greatness, this superiority, to consist.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This question would correspond to one which we ask in the psychology familiar to us: in what exactly does the spiritual being of man consist, what exactly is this vital element that we call the soul? But have we found an assured definition of spiritual being? Have we even as a starting point the necessary and sufficient conditions which constitute material being? Composite, manifold, capable of sentient perception, bound to space time categories: there are very many properties of material being, properties which are implicit in its very nature. Can one say, therefore, that these approximations give us a positive definition of the very nature of material being? In defining mind or spirit we are no further advanced. Why and wherein is a being spiritual? It must be in virtue of properties that we must try to define spirit. It is endowed with will and intelligence, it is not &amp;quot;aperceptible&amp;quot; by the senses. It transcends matter, acting independently of matter. These are so many negative or indirect qualifications which teach us very little in regard to the nature of being as such.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It would, then, be ungracious to reproach these primitive Bantu with being unable to supply us with a perfect definition of &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. On the analogy of our approximate definitions founded on our static notions of being, the Bantu will offer us descriptions of &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in accord with their dynamic conceptions of being.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Man is the dominant force among all created visible forces. His force, his life, his fullness of being consist in his participation to a greater or less extent in the force of God. God, the Bantu would say, possesses (or, more exactly, He is) THE supreme, complete, perfect force. He is the Strong One, in and by Himself; I mwine bokomo bwandi. He has his existential cause within himself. In relation to the beings whom he has created. God is regarded by the Bantu as the causative agent, the sustainer of these resultant forces, as being the creative cause. Man is one of these resultant living forces, created, maintained and developed by the vital, creative influence of God. At his own level, man, by the divine Force, is himself a living force. Man is not the first or creative cause of life, but he sustains and adds to the life of the forces which he finds below him within his &amp;quot;ontological&amp;quot; hierarchy. [66] And therefore man, in Bantu thought, although in a more circumscribed sense than God, is also a causal force of life. This definition goes no further than to describe the relationships that man can have with his environment, without therefore explaining ultimately his essential being. The Bantu say again that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; has the power&amp;sup1; of knowing &amp;quot;udi na Buninge bwa kuyuka&amp;quot; (Kiluba). They regard knowledge and wisdom as living forces&amp;sup2;. We have already shown that true knowledge, true wisdom, consists in understanding the nature and action of other forces, that is to say metaphysical knowledge of forces, or of beings.&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		2. The increase or diminution of &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		This second topic is only an application of the second aspect of the general theory of &amp;quot;force-being&amp;quot; as held by the Bantu.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		What we wish to develop here has been more or less introduced already in the preceding chapters, especially in Section 3 of Chapter II which explained how the behaviour patterns of primitive peoples are centred in an outstanding value, vital force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		According to Bantu thought, it is, then, logical that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; should be able to grow ontologically, become greater, stronger; and equally that he should be able, as &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, to diminish, lose his vital force and come to an end in the complete annihilation of his very essence, the paralysis of his vital force, which takes from him the power to be an active force, a vital cause. This state of the ultimate diminution of being is the fate of some of the dead. It is the condition into which those who have passed over fall if they have no means of renewal through those living on earth. They can no longer exercise their vital influence, either for the strengthening of life, or to the detriment of life by its diminution or destruction.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The living &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is in a relation of being to being with God, with his clan brethren, with his family and with his descendants. He is in a similar ontological relationship with his patrimony, his land, with all that it contains or produces, with all that grows&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr.&amp;quot;force&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		2. Fr.&amp;quot;des forces vitales&amp;quot;(C.K.).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[67]&lt;br /&gt;		or lives on it. All acquisitions bring an increase of vital force in Bantu eyes: everything which breaks into this patrimony, causes it to deteriorate, or destroys it -that is to say, everything which brings injury to that which constitutes his vital force- constitutes a diminution of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in himself, of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in his very essence, which on that account will die, kufwa, in the sense that we made clear above.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is always to accord with this conception of forces that the Baluba speak of &amp;quot;muntu mutupu&amp;quot; to indicate a man of middling importance devoid of real force; while the &amp;quot;muntu mukulumpe&amp;quot; indicates the powerful man who has his part to take in the community. The word &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; inherently includes an idea of excellence or plenitude. And thus the Baluba will speak of &amp;quot;ke muntu po&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;this is not a muntu&amp;quot;, of a man who behaves unworthily. They will use the phrase of a newly-born who has been begotten outside the normal ontological, moral and juridical conditions of clan life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		There is the same thought in &amp;quot;mfumu&amp;quot; (chief) or &amp;quot;tata&amp;quot; (father), while they think of a man who has lost his force in calling &amp;quot;mufu&amp;quot; (dead) anyone whose human essence seems to them to be weakened by reason of his lack of power. When the Bantu thus indicate human categories, they do not envisage a classification based upon accidental differences, but rather a gradation in the essential quality of men in accordance with the intensity of their vital force. One of my colleagues struck the exact term for this when he remarked: &amp;quot;It is odd: these people do not speak as we do: they speak so &amp;quot;realistically&amp;quot;. In fact, primitive language is very &amp;quot;realistic&amp;quot;. Their words lead to the real nature of things. They speak &amp;quot;ontologically&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The quality of &amp;quot;mfumu&amp;quot; is added to the common humanity of an individual neither by external nomination, nor by singling him out. He becomes and is &amp;quot;mfumu&amp;quot; by endowment therewith: he is a new, higher vital force capable of strengthening and maintaining everything which falls ontologically within his cure. A man does not become chief of the clan and patriarch by natural succession through the deaths of other elders who had precedence and because he has become the oldest surviving member of the clan, but because primogeniture inherently supposes an inner secretion of vital power, raising the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; of the elder to the rank of intermediary and channel of forces between the clan ancestors [68] on the one hand and posterity with all its clan patrimony on the other hand. It never takes one long to observe the transformation on becoming chief of a man whom one has formerly known as an ordinary member of the community. The qualitative change is made evident by an awakening of his being, by an immanent inspiration or even, sometimes, by a kind of &amp;quot;possession&amp;quot;. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, in fact, becomes aware of and is informed by his whole conception of the world around, through all his modes of knowledge, that he is now a true &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, endowed with a new power which did not belong to his former human status. He is no longer what he was. He has been changed in his very quality of being. Can one, then, be surprised that each accession of essential life is indicated by the gift of a new name? Such is required to indicate that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; has been renewed and strengthened. In some countries, we are told, the initiate receives a new name at circumcision. Such seems logical enough if circumcision is more than a mere surgical operation: in fact, a ritual (magical) act to strengthen being. The carrying out of this rite is found, indeed, according to Bantu ideas, to be in strict relationship with the growth of procreative potency and to constitute its human vital power. The &amp;quot;mfumu&amp;quot; (chief) on the occasion of his investiture, whereon his being or his force is accorded increased status, receives a name as chief. His former name may be no longer uttered, lest by so doing his new vital force may be harmed or desecreated.&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		3. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is an active causal agent who exercises vital influence.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Just as Bantu ontology is opposed to the European concept of individuated things, existing in themselves, isolated from others, so Bantu psychology cannot conceive of man as an individual, as a force existing by itself and apart from its ontological relationships with other living beings and from its connection with animals or inanimate forces around it.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu cannot be a lone being. It is not a good enough synonym for that to say that he is a social being. No; he feels and knows himself to be a vital force, at this very time to be in intimate and personal relationship with other forces acting above&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;604&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Warega2.gif&quot; width=&quot;474&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;blockquote&gt;		&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;			&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;				[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;				Mask in wood. Warega.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;				Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;				Hght: 0.22 cm.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;				Owned privately. U.S.A.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;				&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;		&lt;/div&gt;	&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[69]&lt;br /&gt;		him and below him in the hierarchy of forces. He knows himself to be a vital force, even now influencing some forces and being influenced by others. The human being, apart from the onto-logical hierarchy and the interaction of forces, has no existence in the conceptions of the Bantu.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We have dealt at sufficient length with the subject of the interaction of beings in the chapter on Bantu ontology, so that it is not necessary to review the particular relevance of it to their psychological conceptions. We have tried to formulate the laws regulating the interactions between beings, and have designated them causal laws. These interactions have hitherto been presented by ethnologists as magical only. Neither the whole thought nor the whole behaviour of the Bantu is magical.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In psychological discussions it is necessary always to stop to examine what we are going to mean by the term &amp;quot;the will&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu understand free will, the faculty which the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; has of deciding by himself and of choosing between a greater and a lesser good, or between good and evil. They think that a man may have a &amp;quot;life giving will&amp;quot;, or a &amp;quot;destroying will&amp;quot;. A man&amp;#39;s will may be determined in the same sense that, in respect of life and the hierarchy of forces, he wills in accordance with that ordering of forces that has been willed by God. It is by acting in this way that the patriarch or the chief of the clan, the chief, the &amp;quot;nganga&amp;quot; (medicine man) is able to act as a life-giver indeed, as a preserver and protector of vital force. A man can, however, be equally actuated by a will to destruction, a wicked will. His evil will (hatred, envy, jealousy) will have repercussions upon the vital force of weaker beings through his mere willing a reduction of their vital power. This wicked influence proceeding from the will to destruction of certain men is known as &amp;quot;bufwisi&amp;quot;. When acting with external forces this will to destruction is known as &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;kulowa&amp;quot; among the Baluba people.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;B. The name or the individual.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The general notion of man, such as we have described, is a common possession of Bantu thought. It is probably common to all primitive people. [70]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Passing to knowledge of the concrete and individueel being, knowledge becomes more hesitant: &amp;quot;Munda mwa mukwenu kemwelwa kuboko, nansya ulele nandi butanda bumo!&amp;quot; (None may put his arm into his neighbour&amp;#39;s inside, not even when he shares his bed). The neighbour&amp;#39;s conscience remains inviolable, even for his closest friend.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		What is the character of such a vital influence as moves within my environment, with which I coexist? What is the intensity of its force, what is its action in any given case, or on any given individual? There are so many things which cannot be felt with hands nor seen with eyes. In this realm of action, witness cannot be invoked in the European sense.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We have already indicated that the Bantu distinguish in man the man properly so-called; and, in addition, his different sense-evident manifestations: the body, the breath, the shadow, etc. Direct knowledge of the living force, which is the man in himself, is not given to everyone among the Bantu. It is the privilege of the seers, who must be considered later on.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		1. The general criteria defining the individual.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The first criterion is the name.&lt;br /&gt;		The name expresses the individual character of the being. The name is not a simple external courtesy, it is the very reality of the individual.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		An example will reveal the difference between the acceptation of the name among Westerners and among Bantu. If one hesitates as to the name of an European and asks him, &amp;quot;You are called Louis are you not?&amp;quot; he will reply &amp;quot;Yes&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;No&amp;quot;. If, however, you ask a &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;Are you called Ilunga?&amp;quot; you will elicit one of the answers &amp;quot;Tata&amp;quot; (Father) or &amp;quot;Bwana&amp;quot; (Master) or &amp;quot;I&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;Myself,&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;Here I am&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;It is I&amp;quot;; but he will not say &amp;quot;Eyo&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;Ndio&amp;quot; (Yes).&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Here is another example of this spontaneous way of speaking. I had baptised an African baby; and, recording the fact in the register, I said to the parents, &amp;quot;His native name is Ngoi then?&amp;quot; Answer, &amp;quot;That is he&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;And his Christian name is Joseph?&amp;quot; Answer, &amp;quot;Yes&amp;quot;. The native name indicates the fact who the child is, while the Chirstian name is something incidental, foreign, [71] European. That is why the parents could reply in the way Europeans speak. &amp;quot;Is he called loseph? Yes, he is called Joseph&amp;quot;. The first name indicates the individual specifically the second name is an incidental epithet. The reply &amp;quot;Tata&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;Bwana&amp;quot;, which may surprise the reader, will receive its full explanation later on. Here let it suffice to say that anyone who replies with his name to a reference to him does so in respect of his vital rank, the relationship of forces in which he stands with reference to the questioner who has addressed him.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; may have several names. Among the Baluba there are generally three kinds of names. We distinguish first the &amp;quot;Dijina dya munda&amp;quot;, which is, so the Bantu say, the inner name, the life name, or the name of the being. This name is never lost. A second name is the one given on the occasion of an accession of force, such as the name at circumcision, the name of the chief, or the name received by a sorcerer on initiation, investiture, or on the occasion when a man becomes possessed by a spirit. Finally, there are names that one chooses oneself, or which one assigns to oneself, dijina dya kwinika bitu, a name which serves only to indicate the person, without having any profound relationship to the person or to his individuality. This last name may be changed or abandoned at the will of him to whom it belongs. Such are the &amp;quot;majina a kizungu&amp;quot;. European names as, for example, &amp;quot;Mashini, Petrol, Bececa, Motoka(r)&amp;quot; etc. Is it not fitting, indeed, that the &amp;quot;muntu wa bazunga&amp;quot; (the White&amp;#39;s man) who is putting himself under the living, dominating influence of white people, should have also an European name? This furnishes us with a novel example of the realism with which the African plays his life; a play in which the philosophy of forces is certainly no stranger.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us return, however, to the particular character of the first name, the living unchangeable name, the name establishing the individuality of the being. For the Bantu, man never appears in fact as an isolated individual, as an independent entity. Every man, every individual, forms a link in the chain of vital forces, a living link, active and passive, joined from above to the ascending line of his ancestry and sustaining below him the line of his descendants. It may be said that among Bantu the individual is necessarily an individual within the clan. This relationship is not regarded as simply juridical dependence, nor one of parent [72] hood. It should be understood in the sense of real ontological dependence. In this order of ideas we may say that the &amp;quot;interior name&amp;quot; is the indicator of individuality within the clan.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Now, what is the clan? It is the whole constituted by the individuals who compose it. It is the ensemble of interior names, started by the founders of the clan. Every newly born is therefore named with an interior name chosen from the names, that is to say from the individuals, who constitute the clan. The Bantu will say to the newly-delivered mother: &amp;quot;You have born our grandfather, our aunt, our uncle, etc.&amp;quot; They will say, &amp;quot;Such a spirit or such an one who has passed over has been born to us.&amp;quot; European observers generally believe that there is a belief in metempsychosis, in the strict sense of the word. It is necessary to clear up this point, since the Bantu are quite unable to conceive an individual apart from this relationship, which has been improperly called metempsychosis.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Here are a few easily verifiable facts. The same ancestor can be &amp;quot;reborn&amp;quot;, or can &amp;quot;return&amp;quot; in several living members of the same clan. You frequently come across several Ngoi or several Ilunga in the same clan, all called after the same ancestor Ngoi or Ilunga. It is already clear that if there is metempsychosis, it is not in the sense in which this belief is ordinarily held. It is difficult to see in fact how one dead Ngoi could multiply himself in several living Ngoi, each incarnating his manes. The Bantu will tell you that the little Ngoi is not identified with the dead. In fact, the birth of the little Ngoi in no wise puts an end to the existence of the deceased Ngoi in the world of the dead. The deceased Ngoi will become the &amp;quot;ngudi&amp;quot; (in Kiluba) or the &amp;quot;mbozwa&amp;quot; (in Kilemba) of the newly-born, who is his majina (homonym). This &amp;quot;ngudi&amp;quot; will be invoked on the child&amp;#39;s behalf, and when the child attains the age of reason he will be taught to appeal on his own behalf to his &amp;quot;ngudi&amp;quot;. Every &amp;quot;ngudi&amp;quot; remains the inseparable protector of his homonym.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		So, then, when Bantu speak of the dead who return and are reborn, we must not regard them as speaking of metempsychosis in the classical sense that we give to this word.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		How, then, are; we to understand it? Is there a logically satisfactory explanation that justifies this belief? It seems that one can be found in reverting to the theory of the philosophy [73] of forces, the validity of which will thus once again be demonstrated.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When a human being is conceived, the conception is attributed exclusively and expressly among the Bantu to the act of God. He is the creator, the causal force of all life. When the fruit of conception develops in the womb of the mother and she begins to feel the new life, the Bantu say that a human being is already there. There is a being to be born. But they ask who this being to be born is. The being is indeed there, but he cannot yet be identified as an individual. If obstetric difficulties are feared, they will go to the diviner, to ascertain who is causing delay. He will sometimes explain that it is because an ancestor is disputing with a spirit the right to be born in that particular child. Sometimes he will reveal which of the two has the better chance; and in this way the parents know whether it is Ilunga or Ngoi or someone else who is coming into the world. Sometimes a pregnant woman is herself able to know the individuality of the child whom she is bearing, through a revelation made in her dreams. I asked a Christian woman to tell me how the child which she was presenting to me for baptism was Monga. She replied, &amp;quot;While I was carrying I dreamed several times that the deceased Monga was following me and saying to me, &amp;quot;Unsele, Unsele&amp;quot;, (&amp;quot;Bear me! Bear me!&amp;quot;) and so I knew it was he who was following me to be reborn in me.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The predeceased ancestor or spirit is not the cause of conception, any more than it is his person which is reborn in the proper sense of the word. It is the human being who already possesses life in the womb of his mother (by divine influence) who finds himself under the vital, the ontological, influence of a predestined ancestor or of a spirit, or even of some deceased who, without really belonging to the clan, is found to be in strict vital relationship with the parents. Are not the ancestors, after God, dispensers of vital force? And is it not through the intimate vital relationship of a deceased with his progenitors that the newly-born is able to be individualised within the bosom of the clan?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Perhaps the idea can be better expressed by saying that it is not a predetermined human being belonging to the clan who is reborn, but that it is his individuality returning to take part in the life of the clan by means of the vital influences through which the deceased gives clan individualization to the newly [74] born, to the living fruit of the womb, that is to be born into the clan. This vital influence is preserved throughout the whole existence, since it is inherent in the very essence of the being.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;2. Another criterion of the individual, of the concrete vital force, is a man&amp;#39;s visible appearance.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us recall once more that in human beings the Bantu distinguish, besides the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, or the being properly so-called, his body, his breath and his shadow, etc. His vital force can express itself in a particular way in certain aspects or modes of external appearance of the man, which we may call moments or knots of high vital tension. The eye, speech, movement, symbolic acts, trances, inspiration, possession are criteria from which the Bantu deduce the existence of certain vital and given forces, of vital influences operative in certain given circumstances. These are the ancient and traditional proofs accepted by Bantu of the existence of a concrete vital influence&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		If one man curses another and the second falls sick or meets with an accident, the malevolent word shows unmistakably to the sick or injured victim that the wicked influence that has broken into his life emanates from the one uttered the curse.&lt;br /&gt;		Let me repeat once more that it is not the eye, the gesture, or in the case mentioned the word, that is the agent of evil influence. And let us give up the use of the outworn terms &amp;quot;symbolic magic&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;magic of expressed desire, or imitative magic&amp;quot;. For the Bantu there is the being that is force, capable of growth or of diminution, a force that exercises a direct influence on other forces. Herein is contained the very essence of the primitive concept of being. Besides this ontological concept there are contingent criteria perceptible to the senses, such as those mentioned above, which allow the conclusion to be drawn of the existence and the presence of vital influences in concrete cases.&lt;br /&gt;		_________________&lt;br /&gt;		1. Already the Baluba are following the example of European judges and are beginning to speak of &amp;quot;witnesses&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;ba-temwa&amp;quot; = &amp;quot;ba-t&amp;eacute;moin&amp;quot;) who have seen or heard the matter at issue-all that the European judge takes into consideration. Formerly they stated the ontological cause, doing it through interpretation of the criteria of the particular vital influence at work.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;br /&gt;		[75]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER V&lt;br /&gt;		BANTU ETHICS&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;A. The norms of good and evil, or objective ethics.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Man is not the ultimate judge of his deeds. He does not find the justification of his acts and omissions in himself. Transcending the free will of man is a higher force that knows, assesses and judges human acts.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Against the decisions and acts of the supreme human power, appeal can always be made to the transcendental power, from whom man has received his power of judgment, with the obligation to give account of his use of it.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When the elder, the patriarch, the customary chief has made a decision, the Bantu will say, as the Baluba have it, &amp;quot;I aye mwine&amp;quot;: &amp;quot;He wills it: he knows why he wills it: it is his business and his right.&amp;quot; Nevertheless, whether they are absolutely sure that they are right, or whether they are convinced of the injustice of the human judgment, they will doubtless allow it to be carried out, but will claim the right of appeal before the Creator, Master of all human beings. Even while allowing himself to be led away, a man will call out: &amp;quot;Do what you will, you have the force to kill me; but, all the same, I am God&amp;#39;s &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;Ne muntu wa Widye&amp;quot; (Kiluba). He will judge us both: You have no right, powerful as you are, to pass arbitrary judgment on one who is not so much your man as God&amp;#39;s man. It is not you who utter the law, your authority is delegated, mandatory.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		[76 ]&lt;br /&gt;		Like all primitive (and semi-primitive) peoples, the Bantu turn to their philosophical concepts and no less towards their knowledge of God to draw out the principles and the norms of good and evil. They are not yet so civilized as to lend a new lease of life to our dead-alive rationalism of &amp;quot;lay morality&amp;quot;. It seems, however, that it is the aim of some colonisers to open the way for their pupils to this &amp;quot;more civilized&amp;quot; system!&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		1. Have the Bantu the idea of good and evil?&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We often hear it said that Africans do not distinguish between good and evil, or at least that on these questions their ideas are those of savages, cutting morality as we understand it to ribbons.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is true that many colonials take it for granted that Africans have but a vague idea of the Supreme Being, that they are convinced that no creature can come into his presence, that he always keeps his distance and does not associate himself with the daily lives of men. In spite of this prejudice, we thought it right to take the trouble to question Bantu upon this point. The influence of God in the daily life of man is recognized in many Bantu proverbs and sayings.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		On the subject of theft, it is generally said that the African does not see the least wrong in it, that the only thing which matters is not to get caught. Lies and deceit, it is said, are, in African eyes indications of subtility of mind, countenanced by all moral assessment. They would not regard adultery as any infraction of morality and it would suffice if anyone caught in the act should agree to pay an indemnity.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Some, however, would concede that the Bantu are at pains to maintain the social order or peace within the clan; declaring, however, that their care in these matters is devoid of moral content or of universally accepted ethical norms. Such authors are doubtless speaking under the influence of Western moral theory, according to which the social order is mere conformity with conventionalized behaviour. Such morality and moral law are evidently empty of fixed beliefs or unshakeable principles held from conviction. Ethnologically speaking, we have scarcely moved forward at all in presenting as Bantu ethics a bundle of&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[no page number]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;img height=&quot;635&quot; src=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/Warega3.gif&quot; width=&quot;382&quot; /&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;	&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;		&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;			[verso of the picture]&lt;br /&gt;			Figure in wood.&lt;br /&gt;			Warega. Belgian Congo.&lt;br /&gt;			Hght: 0.20 cm.&lt;br /&gt;			Owned privately. U.S.A&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[77] moral precepts shot through with our own ethical concepts. We must get to know what the Bantu think. We must see whether the Bantu, from their point of view, go further than, or even contrary to, current practice in accepting transcendental norms of good and evil.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We can only admit it as an ethnological fact if the Bantu show us unchangeable and transcendental principles, in accordance with which they decide whether an act is good or evil, consonant or not with the vital order of things.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us emphasise that there is no need to regard misconduct as accepted conduct because it is often repeated. The orthodox ethical norm does not consist in the ordinary behaviour of men merely because they excuse their lapses by selfish excuses.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Moreover, I have heard Bantu say hundreds of times in various circumstances, &amp;quot;I bibi&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;It is bad&amp;quot;). What struck, and for a long time astonished me, was the note of profound conviction with which these two words were uttered, as if they felt, rather than knew, the distinction between good and evil. Thus it can be understood how they condemn in principle, and with all the force of their vital and indestructible wisdom, the destructive influence of the &amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;sorcerer&amp;quot;, in the sense of the man who casts lots). The Bantu likewise reject lies, deceit, theft and adultery, on the same fundamental grounds of the destructiveness inherent in them. They also condemn, as Bantu, various very widespread usages such as polygamy, child-marriage and other sexual abuses. In short, they know and accept Natural Law as it is formulated in the Ten Commandments.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Is it not disturbing to think that our authorities claim to be looking for grounds which would authorise measures against these abuses! Yet we see these same authorities in the same breath taking repeated moral abuses for sacred customary law and sustaining the worst deviations from sound, ancient Bantu custom.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Every African before a magistrate repeats a formula very similar to that in use among the Baluba: &amp;quot;I am a man who speaks the truth, my words are in accordance with the facts as they were brought about and as they ensued, for I am a muntu mukulumpe, a worthy man.&amp;quot; In other circumstances Africans will be heard to boast that they respect the rights of the person and of the goods of others. And is not the nostalgia of the old [78] people symptomatic when they delight to say that &amp;quot;all the good old rules of life are being allowed to drift&amp;quot;?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		There can be no doubt that Africans have their ideas of good and bad. We shall show that their ethical principles are not, after all, merely left in the air.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. The roots of the knowledge of good and evil are bound up with their philosophy for the Bantu.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The Bantu are still sufficiently primitive to be able to recognize the relationship that exists between the canons of law and the rules of morality on the one hand, and the principles of philosophy or ontological order on the other. In modern empirical science, the whole material world, all physics, all mechanics and the whole stellar universe are reduced to one single idea.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		For primitive peoples the highest wisdom consists in recognizing a unity in the order of beings in the universe, from which they do not idiotically exclude a priori the spiritual world. Their whole ontology which can be systematised around the fundamental idea of &amp;quot;vital force&amp;quot; and the associated ideas of growth, influence and vital hierarchy, reveals the world as a plurality of coordinated forces. This world order is the essential condition of wholeness in human beings. The Bantu add that this order comes from God and that it must be reverenced.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Life belongs to God. It is he who summons it into being, strengthens and preserves it. His great and holy gift to men is the gift of life. Other creatures which, according to Bantu ideas, are lower or higher vital forces, exist in the divine plan only to maintain and cherish the vital gift made to man.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The strengthening of life, the preservation of and respect for life, are by the very nature of creation the business of the ancestors and elders, living and dead. Equally, inferior forces lie at the disposition of human beings for the strengthening, maintenance and protection of the life of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is difficult to decide and to set out what may have been preserved among primitive peoples of what was originally revealed in explicit terms by God concerning moral law. But, the Bantu believe, the divine will finds expression in the world order, in the order of forces, which are accessible to natural intelligence.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[79]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		They infer this order of forces by their human wisdom and by their philosophical notions of the relationships and interactions between beings. Objective morality to the Bantu is ontological, immanent and intrinsic morality. Bantu moral standards depend essentially on things ontologically understood. Knowledge of a necessary natural order of forces forms part of the wisdom of primitive peoples. From that we may conclude that an act or usage will be characterized as ontologically good by Bantu and that it will therefore be accounted ethically good; and at length, by deduction, be assessed as juridically just. The Bantu have not yet, in fact, yielded to the subtilty which permits our jurists to devise a statute law divorced from philosophy, or from the nature of beings.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We have set out the norms of good; conversely, the norms of evil run parallel to them. Every act, every detail of behaviour, every attitude and every human custom which militates against vital force or against the increase of the hierarchy of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is bad. The destruction of life is a conspiracy against the Divine Plan; and the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; knows that such destruction is, above all else, ontological sacrilege: that it is for that reason immoral and therefore unjust.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. Human law accords among the Bantu with what is ontologically moral.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		In the same way as, for Bantu, it is the living &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; who, by divine will, is the norm of either ontological or natural law, so equally he is the norm of the customary law. We could show also, by an equally exact logic, that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is the norm of language, grammar, geography, of all life and of all that life brings into relationship with the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		If the rights of property, land law, inheritance, ancient clan and inter-clan organisation or more modern political organisation -in short, if all legislation and equity- cannot be arrived at by logical deduction from ontological premises, it is none the less certain that primitive customary law, however intricate and conventional it may appear, falls perfectly in line with Bantu philosophy and ethics as we have described them.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		All customary law that is worthy of the name (all that is [80] law and not toleration of abuses) is inspired, animated and justified from the Bantu point of view by the philosophy of living forces, of growth, of influence and of the vital hierarchy. The validity and strength of the customary law of primitive peoples reside in its foundation in their philosophy.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		On the one hand, ethics, that is to say the differentiation of human actions into good and bad in accordance with divine will or from the standpoint of the natural order which is but the expression of the divine will; and, on the other hand, human law, that is to say the spoken differentiation of men&amp;#39;s actions into good and bad in relation to their fellows, to the clan, or, more generally, in relation to human society, rest upon the same foundation of principles and form a single whole (cf. Possoz, &amp;quot;El&amp;eacute;ments de Droit N&amp;egrave;gre&amp;quot;, p. 30). Human society, in its clan or political organisation, is in fact likewise ordered in accordance with the principles of living forces, of their growth, their interaction and their hierarchy. The social order may be founded only on the ontological order, and a political set-up which conflicted with this principle could never be received as consonant with the Bantu mind. It would be well to keep in mind the insurmontable difficulties, aroused whenever an European authority, actuated by the best intentions but failing to understand the reality of Bantu ethics and Bantu law, has attempted to impress a political set-up that has violated the ontological order of the Bantu hierarchy.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		4. The tenacity of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in the defence of his rights is the consequence of his attachment to his fundamental wisdom and to his philosophy.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The Bantu possesses an ethical system proportionate to what remains to them of their philosophy. The knowledge of the higher laws is the clearer insofar as they have been able to acquire and save a clearer and more demonstrable notion of the world according with their own ontology.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Confronted with the everlasting palavers of Africans, we tend to become bored to distraction and to lose patience. But how can the African change this approach of affairs? The deeper his thought, the more his arguments are rooted in his philosophical beliefs, in his wisdom and in his ontological behaviour, the more [81] tenacious he will be and the more he will rise to defend his precious human rights. It is in defence of their rights that non-civilized peoples show their personalities to best advantage, because their rights, like their religion, are built upon the ultimate essence of their humanity, upon their conception of the world and upon their philosophy.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In African eyes, to renounce one&amp;#39;s philosophy is to renounce ethics and law. His deepest obligations, founded on the unalterable principles of his philosophy and on his concept of humanity and plenitude of life, condition both the profound consciousness which he has of his rights and the sacred character that he attributes to them.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		A person who confines himself to recognising in his juridical system simple civil, economic, or social obligations, can only claim, in law, simple civil, economic, or social rights. The uncivilized man is very conscious of his rights as man; and one is tempted to pay profound respect to the juridical conceptions of such a &amp;quot;savage&amp;quot;; at least, so long as he himself has a practical respect for the rights of his neighbour on the same grounds as those which he claims for his own rights. This proud tenacity and consciousness of the Bantu in defending their human rights becomes, in the light of our better understanding of Bantu mentality, a human quality greatly to be appreciated. No longer should we see in it the uncouth short-sightedness of savages.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;B. Man good and bad: Subjective Ethics.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Having examined the objective norms of good and evil, ontological, ethical and juridical, among Bantu, we should now study what, from the point of view of uncivilized people, the behaviour of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; ought to be, regarding him as an individual, as a member of the clan society, or as a citizen of a political set-up.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We must consider the Bantu notions of duty, conscience, guilt and responsability. When and why does the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; know and feel himself to be good or evil? When and why does the clan or the political society pin the label good or wicked on one of its members? What are the degrees of human goodness or human wickedness? What, in the eyes of the Bantu community, are [82]the aggravating or extenuating circumstances to be considered in relation to such assessment?&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		1. The pervert or destroyer (&amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;mfwisi&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;ndoki&amp;quot;).&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		According to the Bantu there is unforgivable wickedness in some people: total, superlative wickedness. In all branches of the Bantu family, the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; testifies to an appalling terror, an intense repulsion, in respect of this diabolical form of evil. It is the &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot; (Kiluba) which, for a Bantu, is as it were a perversion, the corruption of his being, a putrefaction from which emanates contagion to his relationships, a truly ontological contagion.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		According to the Bantu, the most degraded crime, the most cynical prostitution of the sacred laws of nature, is the voluntary and conscious crime of destruction by the &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot;, or by sorcery. Our ontological study has shown us already that it is not necessary to effect such destruction that there should be recourse to magical practices or manipulations, nor even to any external instrument. The perverted vital force by itself suffices to realise these destroying effects. This corrosive force can annihilate directly, by itself. The Baluba call this wilfully sacrilegious influence, which wreaks mischief against that sublime divine gift, life, by the name &amp;quot;nsikani&amp;quot;, perverted will. It is impossible for there to be any reason adequate to justify or to excuse such action of forces against nature.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		All enmity, hatred, envy, jealousy, evil speaking, even false praise or lying eulogy, are severely condemned by the Bantu. To anyone who allows his envy or hatred to rise, the reproach is addressed &amp;quot;Do you want to kill me? Have you bufwisi or buloji in your heart?&amp;quot; Every premeditated act directed towards the destruction of the life of others is called &amp;quot;nsikani&amp;quot;; and true &amp;quot;nsikani&amp;quot;, that which wickedly brings harm upon the vital force of another, is the synonym of &amp;quot;bufwisi&amp;quot; or of &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot;. Such a &amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot; is held to be in the highest degree blameworthy by the Bantu. It is reprehensible in the sight of God, the giver and preserver of all life. Since the &amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot; brings harm to the natural order, to natural law; and consequently to human law, the community has the right of defence against such an evil doer, who spreads destruction and death, who brings about the annihilation of being.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[83]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;&lt;strong&gt;2. The evil will excited or provoked.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The Bantu recognize lower forms of wickedness. They admit especially that a man may be provoked or incited by others to a point at which his good will in respect of life becomes a will to annihilate. A man may be caused to submit to such vexations at the hands of his neighbour that he is impelled in spite of himself to utter imprecations and to will the diminution of the vital force of another. In such cases, a man becomes blinded by transports of passion, his eye is no longer clear, the man so injured has black in front of his eyes. &amp;quot;Mu meso mufita fututu (darkness comes before my eyes)&amp;quot;, the Baluba say. &amp;quot;Bulobo bwamukwata (excitement seized him)&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;Nakwatwa nsungu (I am seized by anger)&amp;quot;, they say again. Excitement, anger, darkening of the eye are not faults: these states of the soul do not constitute a moral evil and consequently they may not be classified juridically as criminal. These attitudes, these human feelings are not in themselves wicked vital influences, although they may lead thereto. Such states, the Bantu say, are in fact determined by external circumstances, things going awry, or misfortunes, evil will, or the injustice of other parties, etc.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Nevertheless, although it is admitted that man finds himself carried away into such states by circumstances foreign to him, it none the less holds that anger, even though involuntary, exercises a negative and wicked vital influence when it turns against other people. A man so excited no longer finds within himself a disposition of reverence towards life. He lives in an abnormal condition, in a state contrary to nature; and this abnormal state, in conjunction with a will that despite itself has become destructive is enough to exercise a harmful influence upon those human beings who come into vital relationships with him; and upon all the minor forms of life (of existence) against which his evilly excited will stands on edge.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Although their pernicious effects can be identical, there remains a fundamental difference between the wickedness of the sorcerer and the evil will of the man excited to evil. It would not be said of the sorcerer that his wickedness has taken possession of him, it would be said of him that he is wicked and that his will is totally bad. But of the man possessed it would be [84] said that he was provoked by difficult circumstances and that he was seized by anger. So long as the man acts under the sway of anger, so long as darkness remains before his eyes, the deeds which he may commit will not be reckoned as faults against him. This must be quite understood as a gust of passing anger, since the choleric nature producing continual explosions, or a permanent condition, will be considered as an expression of the wickedness of the pervert, the destroyer. When the excited man recovers his calmness, when his anger leaves him and when he begins to give an account of what he may have said and done under the sway of his transport, he is obliged to correct his involuntary destructive influence in order to return to an attitude of respect for life and to strengthening it. As this anger caused by an external agent is, by its nature, thus exteriorised, he is similary obliged publicly to recant his imprecations and maledictions and to give evidence of his goodwill, as soon as his eyes see clearly again. If, on the other hand, he is obstinate after he has become free from the transport of his anger, he is at fault. There is an evil will in him which may be imputed to him and which extenuating circumstances can no longer excuse.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It is useless to say that many Africans are still impressed by the anger of Whites. The people of a certain village, in spite of an order given by their Chief, had neglected to prepare a lodging in which I was to stay. My reaction was anger, recriminations and reproaches. The Chief, far from associating himself with my diatribes, begged me to withdraw my hasty and untimely words, &amp;quot;kokilo kosyana, Tata!&amp;quot; lest the village should suffer on account of them after my departure.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In another village in which I allowed myself to be carried away by anger the people said: &amp;quot;No, he is not bad; it is we who are&amp;quot;. The only answer was to acquiesce in what their Father had said.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		During revolts, the insurgents and many others have been in the habit of saying, &amp;quot;The Whites are bad men, they will be our death.&amp;quot; This was simple truth, in that colonizers merely exploited them, systematically ignoring the human worth and the rightness of the people. The idea, peculiarly Bantu, is understandable only in relation to their own conceptions.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The visible proof of the fact that one has dissociated oneself [85] from all wilful pernicious influence is given by spitting out saliva. This is done especially when two friends are reconciled after a quarrel. It is used likewise when those who have injured a third party offer reparation; after the so-called &amp;quot;confessio parturientis&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;; or, again, after the farewells of a father to his departing son if he has previously opposed his going. We shall have to return later on to these particular applications of the custom.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		3. The unconscious evil vital influence.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Those who have lived among Bantu have often given striking illustrations of cases in which a man finds himself accused of exercising a pernicious influence and is condemned by reason of the illness or death of another, without his being convicted of fault, or even of any wicked intention. Often the elements of proof are entirely lacking and the miscarriage of justice is palpable to an European witness. And yet it is said that the accused, after making a feeble defence, submits to the declarations and decisions of diviners and ordeals, or to the sentence of elders and wise men; and he accepts the penalties which are inflicted. Such facts are incomprehensible to the minds of European jurists. I believe that I have found an adequate explanation in Bantu philosophy.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The vital forces are under the governance of God, without human intervention. The hierarchy of forces is an ontological order, founded in the nature of being, not depending only on external agreements and on external meddling. All forces are in relationships of intimate interdependence: vital influence is possible from being to being without recourse to external intermediaries. The vital forces, moreover, are not quantitative, mathematical values; nor are they static qualitative values definable by philosophy. They are active forces not distinct from the being itself, which function not only in themselves and on themselves, but forces whose actions can pulsate through the&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. When a woman has difficulty in childbirth, the reason is supposed to be that she is withholding the name of the real father, which must be disclosed so that the child can be born to him. (Note supplied by Mr. J.L. Pretorius.C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[86]&lt;br /&gt;		whole universe of forces, to whatever extent they are in vital relationships with them.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In a Baluba village, I happened to see a kid, all deformed. The people of the village said to me. The owner of that kid would be wiser to kill the creature, for it will bring misfortune on all the herds of the village. Many authors have noted that formerly Africans threw misbegotten infants into the river at birth. It is well known that the Bantu carry their sick outside the villages to care for them in the bush or in the forest and bring them back only when they are healed. I may be allowed to tell of an African in the Stanleyville district who committed suicide because he had lifted his hand against his mother. The reactions aroused in certain tribes by the birth of twins are well known. Such an event, if not considered abnormal, is at least extraordinary, requiring appropriate rites. In the Milambwe region, north of Kamina, two years ago, some hunters killed a five-legged antelope. Nobody dared taste the game and it was taken whole, as it was, to the Protestant Mission in the district.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These examples show that Africans admit vital influences that are absolutely unconscious. Every unusual phenomenon, every abnormal being is called by the Baluba &amp;quot;bya malwa&amp;quot;, and these eccentricities they hold to be disturbances in the natural order, forces out of the ordinary, bizarre. Besides, if all forces find themselves in relationships of influence according to their vital rank, it is but a step to the conclusion that a force, abnormal in itself, will usually if not necessarily have a disordering influence upon the forces upon which it exercises its action. A monstrosity does not constitute, any more than any other being, an autonomous force; but, like every other force, it will have a vital influence and this influence will be logically monstrous.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In some cases the Bantu seem to see a certain automatism in the reciprocal influences of vital forces, nearly as we see a necessary relationship between the cog wheels of a piece of machinery. It is enough if one pinion is out of truth to upset the whole working.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu accept this unconscious influence, not only between inanimate beings, plants, or animals, but also from &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; to &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. They are convinced, as it seems to me, that the man animated with the best of feelings, the best vital intentions, may [87] nevertheless exercise a pernicious influence. Who, in fact, can boast that he knows the vital system to its ultimate ramifications? The general laws of causality are known by every &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, in the same way as the knowledge of the elementary laws of Bantu physics belongs to the common patrimony. These especially are the criteria whereby the vital forces can be discerned. Nevertheless, particular and concrete knowledge remains ever contingent. It belongs to the realm of approximation and hypothesis. Seers alone have the faculty of knowing particular things certainly and yet... how often it happens that diviners are deceived: &amp;quot;lubuko lutupile&amp;quot;, as the Baluba say. The soothsayer&amp;#39;s error has miscarried, has &amp;quot;missed the mark&amp;quot; as a hunter misses his prey. But a failure in divination does not necessarily lead the African to conclude that this means of knowledge is vain. In their minds these errors seem entirely natural, proceeding from the very nature of things and conforming to the nature and possibilities of our human power to know beings.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		From that the Bantu admit-and they are thoroughly convinced that man can by an act, an attitude, or by his mere manner of being, of which he remains entirely unconscious, bring harm upon the ontological order of forces and consequently do harm in this way to his neighbour&amp;sup1;. I see no other explanation, founded in Bantu philosophy, to explain how Africans bow before an accusation when they know very well, in their inmost conscience, that they have not consciously willed any destructive influence against life. It seems to me that they find themselves in the position of the man who was learning to be a chauffeur. He was convinced that he had followed his theoretical teaching in every detail, that he had in no way been guilty of an error in driving, and yet, confronted with the cuts and bruises and the wrecked car, he dares not deny that he had caused the accident.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Nobody, moreover, would deny that the Bantu community recognizes the right to defend itself against this kind of injury to its vital order. The &amp;quot;not-life&amp;quot;, the force destructive to life, cannot possess rights, it is anti-ontological.&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. One thinks here involuntarily of the Jews, how they feel &amp;quot;unclean&amp;quot;(Du. &amp;quot;onrein&amp;quot;) for instance, as they walk over a place in which anyone is buried. With them uncleanness and ignorance go hand in hand. Christ confuted other false deductions of the Jews by the common philosophy of mankind held by primitive peoples. (&amp;quot;Bantoe Filosofie&amp;quot;, p. 81).&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[88]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;4. What, to the Bantu mind, are conscience, obligation, fault and responsibility?&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Bantu conscience: The moral conscience of Bantu, their consciousness of being good or bad, of acting rightly or wrongly, likewise conforms to their philosophical views, to their wisdom. The idea of an universal moral order, of the ordering of forces, of a vital hierarchy, is very clear to all Bantu. They are aware that, by divine decree, this order of forces, this mechanism of interaction among beings, ought to be respected. They know that the action of forces follows immanent laws, that these rules are not to be played with, that the influences of forces cannot be employed arbitrarily. They distinguish use from abuse. They have a notion of what we may call immanent justice, which they would translate to mean that to violate nature incurs her vengeance and that misfortune springs from her. They know that he who does not respect the laws of nature becomes &amp;quot;wa malwa&amp;quot;, as the Baluba would express it; that is to say, he is a man whose inmost being is pregnant with misfortune and whose vital power is vitiated as a result, while his influence on others is therefore equally injurious. This ethical conscience of theirs is at once philosophical, moral and juridical.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The notion of duty: The individual knows what his moral and legal obligations are and that they are to be honoured on pain of losing his vital force. He knows that to carry out his duty will enhance the quality of his being. As a member of the clan, the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; knows that by living in accordance with his vital rank in the clan, he can and should contribute to the maintenance and increase of the clan by the normal exercise of his favourable vital influence. He knows his clan duties. He knows, too, his duties towards other clans. However hostile in practice intertribal relations may be, Bantu know and say that it is forbidden to kill an outsider without a reason. Outsiders, in fact, are equally God&amp;#39;s people and their vital force has a right to be respected. The diminution and destruction of an outsider&amp;#39;s life involves a disturbance of the ontological order and will be visited upon him who disturbs it.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;#39;s&amp;quot; obligations increase in accordance with his [89] vital rank&amp;sup1;. The elder, the Chief, the King know very well that their doings do not involve their own personal vital force only. They and their subjects fully realise that their deeds will have repercussions upon the whole community subject to them. From that proceeds the scrupulous care that can be observed among all primitive peoples to protect the Chief, the strengthener of life, against every injury to his vital force, by means of a bundle of vetoes and prohibitions. These are designed to maintain intact his ontological power, his vital force, the source of the inviolability of all his subjects.&lt;br /&gt;		Fault and Responsibility: The obligations of the Bantu proceed from natural or vital necessities. Fault or responsibility will, then, be proportional to the degree of evil will by which harm is done to vital force. Our account of subjective ethics has already shown the degrees of fault and responsibility as recognized by Bantu. They are:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		1. Voluntary annihilation (&amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot; among the Baluba).&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		2. The evil will as externally stimulated.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		3. Involuntary and unconscious pernicious influence.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Any further digression upon this question would be mere redundancy.&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;...worden grooter naarmate hij hooger in levensrang staat.&amp;quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[90] [Empty]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[91]&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER VI&lt;br /&gt;		RESTORATION OF LIFE&amp;sup1;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;Notions of penalty&amp;sup2;, compensation, punishment, forfeit and ontological purification.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		We have followed Bantu thought in its science of beings (that is to say of forces) and their reciprocal relationships. We have seen how the Bantu understand the hierarchy of forces and their ordered or disturbed operation, their reciprocal powers of strengthening or weakening. Following that, we saw how man, the higher living force, exerts necessary, normal strengthening or abnormal disturbing, life-destroying influence on his environment. Finally, we saw in the muntu theory, how every &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is constrained by God, by the natural order, by morality and by human law to exercise a normal being vital influence upon its environment.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		All this, however, only gives us an idealistic description of the order of the universe as it ought to present itself. The facts set aside this imaginary universal order, for the Bantu do not ignore the existence of evil, disorder, wickedness and &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot;. Would they admit, however, that there is no struggle between vital forces, ideally known as life-givers, and the evil which they&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;levensherstelling&amp;quot;: Recovery or reestablishment of life.(C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		2. Fr. &amp;quot;sanction&amp;quot;, Du.&amp;quot;sanctie&amp;quot;. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[92]&lt;br /&gt;		recognize in fact and whose real nature is destruction? Could they conceive a world that is only bad, in which everything would be &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot;? Or, again, is there a real world, offering a orkable order of things despite evil? Vital force, order, law, are there so many Utopias, in contrast to which the Universe, the real world, is only evil, that is to say negation, illusion?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Such is the eternal problem of evil which perhaps engages civilized Western thought as much as that of primitive people. Does right really exist? In what form does God exist, how can he tolerate so much injustice, so many horrors as those which our times experience?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Among Bantu the conviction is held that life is stronger than death, that law is greater than injustice, that the vital will is more powerful than the forces of destruction. For the final restoration of life, they found their hopes on the intervention of God. God possesses Right, the fulness of Right; and he enjoys the sovereign use of it despite and against those who violate it. Even during earthly life he can be seen to intervene to remind men of the demands of his law by the infliction of injuries and misfortunes with which he may strike people. &amp;quot;Kosepa memene, Vidye ukipanga&amp;quot;, say the Baluba: &amp;quot;Do not deride a cripple, God still creates defectives&amp;quot;. Even in the ordering of the hierarchy of beings he appointed a force for the defence of his law within the natural order. The elders, those who are still alive as well as those in the world of the dead, have been endowed by God with a formidable weapon: that of imprecation, malediction, or curse, or the withdrawal of the vital influence of fatherhood.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Every man who has received vital force is endowed with a right to life and is given means to claim and eventually to revive his injured right. The vital force given by the Creator is not a sham force, but a living power capable of being strengthened, capable also of offering resistance to the wicked wills which attempt to destroy it.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In the same way the &amp;quot;antidotes&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;means&amp;quot; of safety (manga) are potentially harmiful and pernicious for the owner who uses them heedlessly or irreverently; and for anyone else who would make attempts on (the vital force of) the owner or chief of those manga.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		And so, not only are the Bantu convinced that there is a suppositional order, ideally perfect but not realised, they also [93] know that in the actual order, in spite of the presence of evil, the real vital force possesses a power of restoration of life, of restitution of right. The vital force is, in practice, armed against the destructive force: right and justice are strong against injustice.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		To grasp aright how the struggle between good and evil is raised in the minds of Bantu, the struggle of life against death, of justice against injustice, three prior questions must be considered:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		1. in what do evil and injustice consist?&lt;br /&gt;		2. what evil and what injustice demand restitution?&lt;br /&gt;		3. how are evil and injustice redressed?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div align=&quot;justify&quot;&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;1. In what, first and foremost, do evil and iniustice consist?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It will be sufficiently clear from the foregoing what the Bantu understand by evil: injustice towards God and towards the natural order which is the expression of his will.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Evil and injustice towards ancestors consist in making an attempt against their vital rank. This occurs when a younger person makes a decision off his own bat, or disposes of some piece of clan property without recognizing the elders; when someone goes to a foreign judge to obtain his rights; or when he makes a personal agreement with foreigners.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Towards a foreigner of equivalent status, injustice has no longer the same character of &amp;quot;injustice&amp;quot; as against the elders or brothers of the clan.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Nevertheless, just as in the sight of God, and as before the natural hierarchy of forces and the vital hierarchy of clan life, wrongs done to foreigners constitute in their very nature an injury to vital force, a diminution of life. As much, these wrongs constitute an ontological wrong, an attempt against being, and therefore will be regarded as moral evils and injustice.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We have shown already that the life of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is not limited to his own person, but that it extends to all that is fathered by his vital influence, to all ontologically subjected to him: posterity, land possessions, beasts and all other goods. In the same way as every good office, every help and assistance count before all else as a support, an increase of life to him who is the beneficiary, so every attempt, however insignificant, against [94] the person of one who depends upon him, or simply upon his material possessions, will be considered as an injury to the integrity of his being, the intensity of his life. Every injustice is an attempt upon the life (sc. upon the vital force) of the person injured and the malice in it proceeds from the great respect due to human life, the supreme gift of God. In this sense, every injustice, every attempt against human life (against its vital power which fathers persons and things dependent upon it) is a stupendous evil, an evil measured in terms of the worth of life and infinitely exceeding in every case all calculations in economic terms of the loss suffered, but the measure of the outrage on life endured, which will serve as the basis of assessment of compensation or damages.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. What evil demands restitution?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Since, in the minds of Bantu, the worst evil-and, indeed, the only real injustice-is the harm done to the vital force, it should be at least surprising that they should measure exactly the amount of restitution by the lex talionis, an eye for an eye. The exact restitution of an object stolen, or the drawing up of a tariff of damages, can in no wise be founded upon their conception of life as centred in man. How can they hope to measure good and evil done to man by criteria which are external to him? From their point of view this overlooks the essential point: the re-establishment of the ontological order and of the vital forces that have been disturbed. Even when the restitution takes the form of a transfer of natural goods, it is considered as part of the re-establishment of life; or, rather, as being a re-establishment of life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		We must study the customs of primitive peoples in accordance with their own norms of conduct, for it is only by thus arriving at universal principles from a comparison of established customs that we can isolate the laws of primitive peoples and systematise tribal law. If it is possible thus to separate the principles and the logic of a juridical system, one would still not grasp the rational grounds and spirit of a custom without having had access to primitive philosophy and the natural law as they [95] conceive it. In his remarkable book, &amp;quot;El&amp;eacute;ments du Droit n&amp;egrave;gre&amp;quot; (Elizabethville, 1943) M. E. Possoz revealed the great merit of recognizing that if the r&amp;ocirc;le of the jurist can be held to consist in systematizing a bundle of customary rules drawn from the practice of native law, it is only the philosophy of primitive peoples that gives us the rational ground and spirit of primitive law.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Now primitive law is essentially a law of persons rather than a code concerning goods. It is law about the vital force and life, it is not a law of goods, property and their transference. It is only through the philosophy of vital forces that we can understand how reasonable, from the Bantu point of view, that conception of customary law is. Primitive law remains unalterably shut to our economic mental outlook, so long as we ignore its own grounds.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This theory can be illustrated by several examples.&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;#39;When a Muluba agrees to lend 30 francs to a man of another clan, who is in a tight corner by reason of some extreme necessity, for example, to avoid distraint for non-payment of taxes, the borrower will admit, and all the Baluba will agree with him, that he has been &amp;quot;saved&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;delivered&amp;quot;, by the lender. It is not a question of lending and advancing; or, to be exact, there is a loan in the Bantu sense (kuluka, as the Baluba say), that is, saving, freeing. Now it is a man who has been saved, freed. We see again and again that for his &amp;quot;liberation&amp;quot;, which in our eyes is only the borrowing of a few francs, a man is ready to pay a costly glass-ware necklace, a rifle, or some other reimbursement worth ten times the sum advanced to him. If the case were taken before the judges, they would confirm the obligation, saying to the man &amp;quot;freed&amp;quot;: &amp;quot;Remember, here is your deliverer&amp;quot;. I have often had to try to explain to this or that judge, and among them those of the utmost integrity and wisdom, that this was usury, swindling, and the exploitation of human misery. Their answer, always unperturbed, came from the depths of Bantu wisdom: &amp;quot;Has he not been saved?&amp;quot; And they would finish their sentence with numerous examples, cases in which they themselves had paid sums equally out of proportion to the loan.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Very recently (February 1945) a village Chief, Kapundwe, confided to me a matter which had greatly mortified him. A friend in the neighbouring village of Busangu had entrusted a young ewe to him. One day, Kapundwe&amp;#39;s dog was surprised&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[96]&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		while devouring the creature. Probably, Kapundwe said to me, it was not his dog that killed the ewe. Sheep abunded in the village and his dog had never taken any of them. Nobody could be found to testify that his dog had killed the ewe, but everybody had seen him eating the skin. Kapundwe began by giving an ewe to his friend, then another, then yet another, which made three ewes for one; and he added moreover a sum of 100 francs. Naturally Kapundwe &amp;quot;disapproved&amp;quot;, but what may astonish us in this story is not the demands excessive as we think them, but rather the fact that Kapundwe, while making a face about it, was yet disposed to pay such reparations without any legal decision or constraint. The Busanga man said &amp;quot;Bisansa&amp;quot;: &amp;quot;I am in pain, the loss of my ewe has hurt me: to assuage my grief at this loss, the sending of three sheep and a sum of 100 francs is not too much, for only then can I forget my grief and feel myself to be once more a happy man, a living man.&amp;quot; It is likely that if Kapundwe had known certainly that it was his dog that had killed the ewe, he would not have dreamed of even complaining of his misfortune to me. The sheep lived with him, was under his vital influence. Therefore, everything which happened to the beast, whether good or evil, must be attributed to Kapundwe&amp;#39;s conscious or unconscious influence.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Besides and beyond economic damages, the &amp;quot;bisanso&amp;quot;, the sorrow, the wrong done to the man, constitutes the right to reparation. The man, wounded during his peaceful enjoyment of life, in the fulness of his vital force, the wholeness of his life, has a right to restoration of being. Material indemnities have no other significance than that of achieving the restoration of the man.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		What, then, in view of this, is the function of judges? Is it to estimate and fix the amount of the indemnity which fairly recompenses the wrong suffered? It seems that according to former custom, the judges confined themselves to stating who was right and who was wrong, who was &amp;quot;white&amp;quot; and who &amp;quot;black&amp;quot;, who was &amp;quot;strong&amp;quot; (in his own right) and who was &amp;quot;feeble&amp;quot; (and was succumbing). And one sees everywhere the zeal of litigants greatly exercising themselves to be pronounced white, to be able to put on &amp;quot;mpemba&amp;quot; (kaolin) or cinders, as material witness of the whiteness within, ontological purity, clear of evil vital influence, free from all destructive will. The party to blame [97] is, on the contrary, pronounced &amp;quot;black&amp;quot;, ontologically soiled, evil, because he bore harm to the &amp;quot;life&amp;quot; of another. In declaring who is white and who black, the judges have proclaimed the law. He who is acclaimed &amp;quot;white&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;strong&amp;quot; has the right to exact reparation for his life; and the payment of economic indemnities, compensations, etc, follows then as a matter of course, although it may be admitted that, in an ordered society, authority sees to the execution of the sentences. However, the fixing of the amount of the compensation and the nature of the indemnity no longer appertains to jurisprudence, properly speaking. It is the injured man who, in theory, has the right to say what he considers necessary for the restoring of the fulness of his vital force. Very often the judges confirm and sustain the exigencies of the &amp;quot;strong&amp;quot; man.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It would be easy to multiply examples, but it may be enough to retain those that have been given with the particular purpose of making it clear that for the Bantu &amp;quot;juridical restitution&amp;quot; always has the sense of a &amp;quot;restoration of vital force&amp;quot;.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. How evil and injustice are redressed.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot;&gt;a) Wrongs done towards superior vital forces&lt;/span&gt;. Faults committed against the higher vital forces, God, the ancestors, elders living or dead, are not to be considered as effecting diminution of the force of these beings. According to Bantu ideas, diminution of a superior force by a force subordinate to it is a metaphysical impossibility. Nevertheless, a lower vital force can ignore or hold in contempt a higher force, the younger may rebel against his elder. He who voluntarily acts thus behaves as if he wished to inflict harm upon a higher life, as if he were trying to weaken it, as if he were trying to usurp his place in the vital hierarchy. Such conduct holds in contempt the higher vital status of God, the ancestors, or fathers living or dead and amounts to a denial of their ascendancy. Although such behaviour&amp;sup1; cannot harm the vital status of these higher forces, it does not consist solely in to them or a vital necessity to their own preservation.&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The Baluba call this behaviour &amp;quot;kibengo&amp;quot;, a word usually translated &amp;quot;pride&amp;quot;. However, to say that anyone is of the same age, or of like vital rank as oneself, one would say, &amp;quot;we have kibengo towards each other&amp;quot;. The true meaning, therefore, is &amp;quot;to treat as an equal&amp;quot; - quite obviously an irregular and insulting attitude in respect of a person of higher vital rank.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[98]&lt;br /&gt;		what we should call pride, irreverence, outrage. In the moral theory of the Bantu, it is a troubling of the ontological order, an attempt against the vital hierarchy.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Restitution for such a fault cannot be made in the sense of repair of the damage caused, compensation for diminution of vital force, but only by acknowledgment of the hierarchical order. This acknowledgment is made by means of propitiatory offerings, by ontological purification, by what has been called &amp;quot;magical&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;ritual&amp;quot; purification of the village and its inhabitants. The Baluba speak in this connection of &amp;quot;koyija kibundi&amp;quot;, washing the village.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When an epidemic ravages a whole village, when fatal cases are multiplied, the Baluba no longer speak of &amp;quot;lubuko&amp;quot; (divination), nor of &amp;quot;manga&amp;quot; (magical cures), nor of &amp;quot;kulowa&amp;quot; (magical charms)&amp;sup1;. They conclude rather that the higher forces are disturbed: God, the ancestors, the dead; in short, the whole higher order of beings has been provoked. Pagan Baluba are willing to pay dearly in such circumstances if the missionary will agree to &amp;quot;wash&amp;quot; the village with his potent &amp;quot;holy water&amp;quot; for they know very well why they are dying. Such misfortune can proceed from higher forces alone&amp;sup2;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It will be well to state at this point the relationship in which the Bantu feel that they live with their elders and the forces of the invisible world (forefathers, ancestral founders of the tribe and God Himself) in order to justify their reaction in face of such calamities. It is necessary to define the juridical status of the living &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in relation to the ascending hierarchy of forces going back even to God. It does not seem to me that the Bantu regard themselves as possessors of rights as against those eminent possessors of rights who are the higher forces. Their relationship with the higher vital forces, the elder forces, the worship which they claim to offer to God and to their ancestors, have not, I think, the character of a contractual pact. Let me explain. God is the giver of life. Life is a free gift. The giver can be under no&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. The Fr. reads &amp;quot;envo&amp;ucirc;tement&amp;quot;, from &amp;quot;envo&amp;ucirc;ter&amp;quot;, which means to work injury by means of wax images: Low Latin &amp;quot;invultare&amp;quot;: see Littr&amp;eacute;. Du. &amp;quot;het noodlot werpen&amp;quot;: fate, destiny, to cast lots. (C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		2. Footnote in the Du. Edn. &amp;quot;Wrong doing to superiors is thus really a disturbance and lessening of their life-force, and the restoration of that wrong must be a renewal of their life-force in its ontological purity and order.&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[99]&lt;br /&gt;		obligation to the recipient. In contradistinction from the Jews, conscious of a pact, an alliance between Jehovah and Israel; or from Christians who, relying on Revelation, claim a new covenant, a new testament, between God and man, the Bantu are complete strangers to this idea of a contract either with God or with the ancestors. On the contrary, many Bantu proverbs recall that God distributes his blessings and his woundings in accordance with his good pleasure alone. They teach that the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; has no choice but to take what comes. They say that one cannot hold a palaver against God. When Bantu are asked if they do not sometimes upbraid their ancestors for not protecting them properly, they answer, &amp;quot;How may we address reproaches to them, insult them, or refuse to honour them? Are they not the great ones who already were when we were born? The chiefs of the race, founders of the tribe, have precedence over the living by so many living grades&amp;sup1; by so many generations, and they are seen to be in consequence so near to God, that many confuse them in practice with God himself, or very nearly. Do they not constitute the supreme chain binding the clan to God; and are not they the authorised mandatories in close relationship with all their posterity. The supreme and immediate intermediary of the superior vital influence is regarded by the Baluba as the personification of that higher Force and is freely referred to by his Name&amp;sup2;. One might suppose that children or descendants would have at least a right to life as against their parents or ancestors; that they would have a right to the support and strengthening of their lives. Now, among the Bantu, the very existence of children apart from their progenitors is inconceivable. They are unable to have force excepting through their relationship with their parents, for they have a right to it only in dependence upon their elders. To say that ancestors or parents have a duty of vital strengthening can be understood only as an intrinsic duty, an ontological duty to preserve the clan, a duty towards that force which is superior&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;Pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;dent les vivants de tant de rangs vitaux&amp;quot; - grades of vital force. (C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		2. Footnote to the Du. Edn. &amp;quot;It is not thought that the Bantu identify their ancestors with God. Any official messenger from the Chief would be treated as the Chief himself. He is, in the absence of the Chief, as it were his image, the shining countenance of his master; and what he speaks is none other than the word of him who sent him. Thus Africans call me &amp;quot;Syakapanga&amp;quot; (a name for God). Do I not stand as the representative of God? (p. 93)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[100]&lt;br /&gt;		to them or a vital necessity to their own preservation. In his vital action on behalf of his dependents, the ancestor or the elder is strengthening himself, perpetuating himself in a line of numerous descendants. It is consequently impossible for them to will the destruction of the clan and in their efforts to strengthen the clan they are necessarily &amp;quot;irreproachable&amp;quot;. They are, in a manner of speaking, &amp;quot;beatified&amp;quot;. Only elders or patriarchs still living may be called upon for explanations, called to order and advised by the men of note and seniors, with a vital rank nearly equal to their own, each time that, by their behaviour, they jeopardize the vital force of the clan.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In any case, no child can enter into a contract with its father, so even less will anyone still living think of doing so with his ancestors. Such behaviour would amount to a repudiation of natural dependence. It would be tantamount to uttering his own death sentence. It would be in the nature of a revolt. It would constitute exclusion from the source of vital force which flows among Bantu by strict rules of primogeniture from fathers and ancestors. If mistakes have been committed against them, they can be made good only by contrition and propitiatory offerings, by formal recognition of the higher vital rank of his forbears and by his own ontological purification.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		b. Evil done to inferiors.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The explanation given above on the subject of the vital relationships in the bosom of the clan shows us that an elder may do evil to a junior, to one of his descendants. He may restrict his paternal strengthening and so reduce his descendant to a diminished condition. He may abandon him while his vital force is thus reduced. He may even curse his descendants, or consign them to perdition. This diminution of vital force exposes per se those who are thus victimised, to become the prey of pernicious vital influences. Although such an abandonment may not bear the character of dereliction of duty towards inferiors, as it would if they had autonomous rights, it constitutes, none the less, a fault against nature, an outrage against life. Such an action on the part of a father shows a disposition contrary to the Divine will, contrary to his own life&amp;#39;s interests as being one who contains the life of all his descendants; and hence contrary to the interests of [101] the clan and its founders, of whose life-giving force he is the custodian.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Such a fault can be repaired only by a readjustment into right vital relationships with his descendants. Just as there is &amp;quot;malediction&amp;quot; (&amp;quot;kuf&amp;iuml;nga&amp;quot; in Kilubu), so there is also a revocation thereof &amp;quot;kufingulula&amp;quot;. If there are faults against matrimony (for example, extra-conjugal relations) which may have pernicious effects on the child to be born, this evil influence can be made good by the &amp;quot;confessio parturientis&amp;quot;, or the avowal of the fault. If the opposition of the father to his son who wants to leave the village (to go to work for Whites, for example) earns him a malediction, there is also a &amp;quot;blessing&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;kupela mata&amp;quot;, to emit saliva, which can be done by giving the saliva to him on a leaf. This is the sign that the young man is not going to carry away the father&amp;#39;s curse, nor his destroying will. If a man rebukes his wife for exercising a bad influence upon his children, or as being the cause of their illness, he may invite her to a &amp;quot;kutompolo&amp;quot; (to lament) so that her lamentation may do away with her harmful influence, or that she can supply proof that it does not exist in her.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Reparation for the fault of diminishing vital influence for one&amp;#39;s descendants consists always in re-establishing a good fatherly influence. This restoration is always accompanied by outward ceremonies which set forth and prove it.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p class=&quot;titelgrijs&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		c. Faults committed in respect of equals.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;font color=&quot;#333333&quot;&gt;1. Reparation to the dead and to spirits.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Among Bantu, there is an essential and clearly marked difference between ancestors and the numberless dead (especially those who have recently died) who do not belong, properly speaking, to the ascending line of ancestors, by whom the vital influence of the original progenitors descends to living posterity.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The founders of the clan, heads of the line, are so near to the Creator that they are no longer called among the Baluba &amp;quot;bafu&amp;quot; (dead), but &amp;quot;ba-vidye&amp;quot; (enhanced, spiritualised beings). They are, after God, the first strengtheners of life; and they are, as it were, for each clan the image, the personification of God. The difference drawn by Baluba between &amp;quot;ba-tata&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;ba-nkambo&amp;quot;, indicating [102] intermediaries in the ascending line of ancestors; and &amp;quot;ba-fu&amp;quot;, ordinary dead of the clan who were not Chiefs of the clan while living, nor are any nearer to being so after death, is, to say the least, characteristic.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		With founders or ancestors there can be no question of a pact of any contractual relationship, as we have already said. They must not be injured or scorned, nor must they be threatened with a breaking off of relationships, for this would mean simply death for the living. When a disaster falls upon the clan, there must be no question of reproaching the ancestors, but simply of testifying from out of mourning to a re-established filial attachment to secure a new alignment with the vital influence of the forbears.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		As we said above when we were considering Bantu ontology or relationships of being, and the right relationships that should exist between the ancestors or forefathers of the clan and the living members of the clan community, the living are in the position of new-born children in regard to their forefathers. This is considered entirely appropriate to right relationships. Indeed, their vital rank differs from that of the forefathers more than does that of infants from that of living older persons. Ancestors and forefathers still stand as the clan itself towards the living clan and towards each member of it as such. From them comes the vital force of the whole clan. Their veneration, the seeking of their counsel, sacrifices or gifts by elders of the clan to them, are the affairs of the whole clan community, though these functions are performed only through the intermediary of the living first-born of the head of the clan.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		But towards &amp;quot;bafu&amp;quot;, ordinary deceased, all is different. Many dead of former days have been forgotten, have disappeared&amp;sup1;. The dead of a nearer epoch, those who are still known, who were known as living beings, these are regarded as more or less equals. Between such deceased and the living, relationships are sometimes clan relationships, sometimes individual. Some relationships are urged by the natural order, or by the vital necessities of clan life, while others have a more contractual character. All these relationships, whether clan or individual, can be good or bad, rightly or wrongly ordained, just or unjust, whether from&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;gone for good&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[103]&lt;br /&gt;		the point of view of the living, or from that of the dead. Restoration of life in cases of clan relationship with ancestors will consist in renewed or acknowledged dependency on life. When the relationships with the dead are purely individual or contractual, restoration of life may sometimes consist in annulment of the past. Let us illustrate the point by means of examples.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		A little time after the death of a &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;. account is taken as to whether the deceased is to be regarded as friendly or hostile. The diviner will decide whether an illness or a misfortune that has supervened in the interval following the demise of the deceased should be laid at his door. A deceased who has just brought injury to the life of members of the clan, or who, by exercising a pernicious influence on strangers, is compromising the clan which is responsible for his deed, will be called among the Baluba &amp;quot;mufu wa kizwa&amp;quot;, a bad departed, a wanton, petulant deceased (&amp;quot;wa nsikani&amp;quot;). Those who are responsible for this deceased will then hasten to make restitution for the wrongs or neglects which may have been suffered in respect of him during the period of mourning and in assuring for him the honour which eventually he would have due to him. If, however, the wrong has been made good, or if the living do not feel that they have anything with which to reproach themselves in respect of him, then it will be the deceased who will be adjuged in the wrong if he does not agree to make an end to his wicked influences. He has no right to diminish, so as to enfeeble, the clan, either directly or indirectly, without a proper reason. Such would be an instance of &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot; on the part of a deceased. Vital restitution making good the evil wrought can only, in such cases, consist in a struggle which the living members of the clan will undertake against this pervert brother. This is the self-defence of life against the principle of destruction. They insult and injure such a deceased: an attempt will be made to drive him away; if necessary, recourse will be had to &amp;quot;manga&amp;quot;, that is to say, to &amp;quot;natural forces&amp;quot; ; and, if that is not enough, the ministrations of the &amp;quot;manga&amp;quot; man will be sought, to get him to take away from the deceased such force as may remain in him, to paralyse his harmful actions, to prevent him from having further deelings with the living; and by preventing his rebirth, which is the utmost diminution of vitality. It is possible even to go so far as to disinter the corpse, to burn it and to scatter the ashes. The Baluba say that he has been [104] driven to the &amp;quot;kalunga ka musono&amp;quot;, or &amp;quot;kalunga ka masika&amp;quot;, which denotes the accursed region, hell, whence nobody has ever returned, and whence no influence is exercised. The deceased is then completely &amp;quot;dead&amp;quot;, cut off from the living. And so ordered existence is restored in face of trouble, perversion, disorder. An ontological purification of the clan has taken place.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Another example: a deceased, a mere member of the clan, may follow a woman to be reborn in the fruit of her womb (&amp;quot;kulonda&amp;quot; in Kiluba) in order to re-establish his name in the clan. This constitutes a favourable clan influence, a strengthening which will not operate against or apart from the influence of the &amp;quot;ba-tata&amp;quot; (ancestors from whom the deceased himself received his name). Such an influence should not be denied-in fact it is always welcomed-and it would be wrong for the living not to give a child who is going to be born the name of one &amp;quot;returning&amp;quot;. Such an omission would deprive the child of the strengthening patronage of the ancestor, exposing it to the risk of being born outside clan relationship.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		But &amp;quot;come-backs&amp;quot; may follow a person for more personal ends. This may be so, especially, in regard to hunting. Such a form of &amp;quot;pursuit&amp;quot; will be revealed by some unexpected incident: an accident, illness, dream or omen. Such signs will not always be explained with certainty as warnings of such and such a spirit, or of one who has passed over, excepting through the inter-mediary of a diviner. The Baluba take account of tutelary spirits of hunting (&amp;quot;bakisi ba luvula&amp;quot;). These are spirits akin to the wind, which have no material existence, have never been man, bear no human names and are not born into the human race. They follow the hunter to be honoured by him, to receive offerings from him, to let him enjoy the benefits of their protection, to secure him good fortune in his hunting and to assure him &amp;quot;force for his gun&amp;quot;&amp;sup1;. It goes without saying that the hunter will accept this precious help; he will need a place for prayer and for making offerings to his &amp;quot;tutelary&amp;quot; spirit. He will call upon this good genius as &amp;quot;my&amp;quot; spirit, or &amp;quot;my&amp;quot; ghost, asking him &amp;quot;Help me!&amp;quot; But nevertheless, should the spirit or the dead come late with his help, we shall see our worshipper exclaim, &amp;quot;What! You pretend to follow me while I am hunting and get my offerings!&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr.&amp;quot;un fusil fort&amp;quot;, a gun with force to it. (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[105]&lt;br /&gt;		I have done my part and you leave me in the lurch. I shall do no more for you: never&amp;quot;. And he leaves his place of prayer, or destroys in his anger the votive hut which he has built. Herein are clearly seen individual and reciprocal relationships, in which the carrying out of obligations by the one party is the condition of duties being incumbent upon the other. Injustice is here requited by reproaches and by the ultimate annulment of the pact.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Their original simple philosophy of the influence and strengthening of beings has taken the road to more and more magical applications, which have over-developed and smothered the simple clan community life and clan ancestor worship. We see now more and more individual practices, or practices of life-strengthening, outside and apart from the clan hierarchy. In many Bantu tribes we are confronted with deviations contradicting the original concept of vital influence and of the strengthening of life. It is doubtless by objective study of this actual state of affairs that ethnologists have been led to conclude that the worship of the dead was, among Bantu, in the nature of contractual, that is reciprocal, obligations. To my mind, it is more in accordance with reality to say that it is the end of a process of evolution, of metamorphosis, that these contractual relationships with mutual obligations have set the ancient and natural law of the clan on one side. Many people, certainly, among the obstinate, conservative and philosophy-filled Baluba ba Kasongo a Nyembo still live in accordance with their philosophy and clan worship in spite of its abuses and magical excrescences.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;font color=&quot;#333333&quot;&gt;2. Re-establishment of life among living persons of equal status in law.&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Among living peoples who are equals in law there can be ontological wrongs, influences that weaken life, legal injuries which can be made good.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot; or evil will cannot make good its destructive action. In the face of this evil, one remedy alone is possible, the liquidation of the intrinsic wickedness in the name of the rights of life. He who is evil, who in his being is destructive force, must have his malevolent action paralysed by every possible means. This malefactor must be eliminated by being put to death and, even, by incineration. The whole community among whom the [106] &amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot; lives can and ought to take part in this ceremony. The &amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot; is, in fact, Public Enemy Number One to all around him. He no longer knows laws: neither ontological law, human law, clan law, nor the law of peoples.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		However, as we have already seen, there is also wickedness which is excited, which does not pursue evil as such, but which none the less issues in malevolent results. When one has business with a person thus excited, one waits until he recovers his calmer self, until his passion relaxes its grip on him. Only then can one ask him to render account of the evil that he has said or done, unless he has already given his own explanation and has paid compensation in those matters that require restoration. Such compensation, even if it should consist in damages for material loss, has a deeper character: even a friendly arrangement is always made with the express intention of serving as a vital restitution, or, if you prefer, as a renewal in the ontological order. If maledictions have been uttered (&amp;quot;kufinga&amp;quot;) they will yield to a revocation (&amp;quot;kufingulula&amp;quot;); if an evil lot has been cast (&amp;quot;kulowa&amp;quot;), the resultant evil influence ought to be neutralized (&amp;quot;kulobolola&amp;quot;); if a misfortune has been caused to an opposing party, the reconciliation consists in the withdrawal of the misfortune (&amp;quot;kusubula&amp;quot;) and the restoration of the injured party to the full enjoyment of his force. Among the Baluba this is signified by touching the joints with an iron object, the symbol of force. Evil influences bringing results detrimental to communal hunting are neutralized by the confession of the party responsible (&amp;quot;kutula mwifyaku&amp;quot;). At each of these vital restitutions will appear the external proof of the expulsion of the evil will, the spitting of saliva (&amp;quot;kupela mata&amp;quot;).&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		When a man who has caused a wrong through an evil will excited in him continues to feel resentment even after he has recovered his senses, he may be compelled to make restitution by force and by constraint, whether before a tribunal or independently of legal proceedings against him.&lt;br /&gt;		When wrongs have been caused between equals and within the clan, the Chief has domestic means at his disposal to persuade the trouble-maker, the disturber of clan life, to restore the vital order. He can reprimand, threaten, humiliate, place him after the injured brother in clan rank, or, worse still, take away his sonship from him, expel him from the clan and, in consequence, [107] make him a man with no civil rights by breaking off his own fatherly relationship with this perverted clansman.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Finally, we have seen the involuntary wrongs which an evil but unconscious vital influence may cause. Just as the Jews could unwittingly and involuntarily become unclean (for example, by coming into contact with a tomb which they did not see), so the Bantu can disturb the ontological order without intending to do so&amp;sup1;. Such wrong doing must, however, be put right on pain of bringing down misfortune. Among the Bantu, restitution always consists in removing the evil and the cause of it from the community. The life of the community must be purified. It is thus that we must explain the custom of throwing into the river, the bog, or the bush creatures born deformed.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Every anomaly, defect and physical monstrosity and all illnesses are involved in some way with &amp;quot;buloji&amp;quot; and may have a maleficent influence by reason of the trouble which they cause in the normal order. Against all these evils there are purificatory practices, rites, prohibitions, ablutions, etc. Examples of protective measures of this kind abound among the Bantu of all districts.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;Conclusions.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		Although I have been obliged to confine myself to touching on the more outstanding characteristics, I trust that I have been able to reveal the Bantu view regarding the struggle between good and evil, right and injustice. It is a struggle which, for Bantu, can be ended only by vital restoration.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		God expects recognition of his vital rank; and he may exact it from men by inflicting injuries (&amp;quot;bipupo&amp;quot;) on their villages. Restoration in respect of the disturbing of vital order will finally be made in hell (&amp;quot;kalunga ka musono&amp;quot;).&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The founders of a clan and the ancestors employ the same means, but in a less degree, under the divine scheme of government and in conformity with divine decrees.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		For men of humble station there is but one way to maintain and increase life, Right and the Good.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Christ had to correct among his contemporaries many erroneous deductions made by primitive philosophy.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[108]&lt;br /&gt;		The way is by the acknowledgement of higher living forces and by the maintenance of their own proper vital rank; or, if they have deviated from it, then by their restoration in dependence on and attachment to the hierarchy of forces. Confronted with natural forces, there is by divine decree but one possible attitude: that of regular, reverent and wise use of them. Every abuse against nature in respect of these forces, every ontological sacrilege, demands restitution. Vital restoration, purification of being and sanctions as thus understood, are Bantu conceptions. Penalty, fine, damages belong to European legal notions, unless we modify their content to understand them in the significance of vital restoration.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[109]&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER VII&lt;br /&gt;		BANTU PHILOSOPHY AND OUR MISSION TO CIVILIZE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;1. The &amp;quot;Non-civilized&amp;quot; and ourselves: Amende honorable.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		If we are justified in the hope that we have plumbed the depths of the primitive soul in this treatment of Bantu philosophy, we shall be obliged to revise our fundamental ideas on the subject of &amp;quot;non-civilized&amp;quot; peoples: to correct our attitude in respect of them.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This &amp;quot;discovery&amp;quot; of Bantu philosophy is so disconcerting a revelation that we are tempted at first sight to believe that we are looking at a mirage. In fact, the universally accepted picture of primitive man, of the savage, of the proto-man living before the full blossoming of intelligence, vanishes beyond hope of recovery before this testimony. On the contrary, as in the Biblical vision of the dead bones which came to life, re-assembled and took shape as man revived, we distinguish, vaguely at first but soon more clearly and at length plainly, the true primitive man whom we have misconceived. In the unnumbered crowd of the primitive masses, in the faces falsely looked upon as bestial, we see the animal expressions which we lent to these savages fade&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1.&amp;quot;The very profound and suggestive analysis of P.Tempels restates most felicitously the fundamental bases of ethnology and seems to me also to throw most valuable light upon the spirit in which missionaries should approach the souls of &amp;#39;primitive&amp;#39; people.&amp;quot; (Jacques Maritain in the &amp;quot;Bulletin des Missions&amp;quot;, No. 3, 1946, Loppem, Belgium.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[110]&lt;br /&gt;		away. It is as if, all at once, a light of intelligence illumines, radiates from and glitters in these animal countenances that have been thus humanly transformed. We get the impression that these masses want to rise from their alleged lowliness, clothing themselves in the knowledge of their own lore and in their conception of the world; and thus standing before and looking down upon the small group of Westerners, civilized indeed, but how puffed up with pride. We feel that we should speak &amp;quot;from one school of wisdom to another&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;from one ideal to another&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;from one conception of the world to another conception of it&amp;quot;. The gods are dethroned, the disinherited stand before us as equals.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Ethnologists of the evolutionary school have already been perturbed by the &amp;quot;troublesome statements&amp;quot; of those who have revealed that it was amongst the most primitive peoples, those least civilized, that the purest and most sublime idea of a monotheistic God was to be found. Is not the discovery that there is such a thing as philosophy among the Bantu going to lead to other &amp;quot;troublesome statements&amp;quot; of the same kind? It would seem, in fact, that the erroneous deviations from and inadequate applications of Bantu philosophy noted in the body of this book are generally of recent date. Older Bantu thought, healthier and more certain, can still be discovered in its most exact form among the most conservative tribes.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;2. A Troublesome idea for us &amp;quot;educationists&amp;quot;.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The discovery of Bantu philosophy is a disturbing event for all those who are concerned with African education. We have had the idea that we stood before them like adults before the newly born&amp;sup1;. In our mission to educate and to civilize, we believed that we started with a &amp;quot;tabula rasa&amp;quot;, though we also believed that we had to clear the ground of some worthless notions, to lay foundations in a bare soil. We were quite sure that we should give short shrift to stupid customs, vain beliefs, as being quite ridiculous and devoid of all sound sense.&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Du. &amp;quot;Als het alles tegenover het niet&amp;quot;. Fr. &amp;quot;Comme le tout devant le n&amp;eacute;ant&amp;quot;. &amp;quot;The Everything against the Nothing&amp;quot;.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[111]&lt;br /&gt;		We thought that we had children, &amp;quot;great children&amp;quot;, to educate; and that seemed easy enough. Then all at once we discovered that we were concerned with a sample of humanity, adult, aware of its own brand of wisdom and moulded by its own philosophy of life. That is why we feel the soil slipping under our feet, that we are losing track of thing; and why we are asking ourselves &amp;quot;what to do now to lead our coloured people?&amp;quot; For it is quite another problem to re-educate men fully formed-or misinformed, if you will-than to begin the education of infants, receptive to any and every impression. Even before we &amp;quot;rethought&amp;quot; Bantu philosophy, before grasping clearly its profound influence upon every act and deed of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, we were beginning to suspect, perhaps, that everywhere there was a Bantu way of thinking which deeply influenced their behaviour. We were even thinking that we must take account of it. Such a reality cannot be disguised, ruled out, denied or ignored by any conscientious educator. The question now is to know how and to what extent we must take this reality into consideration.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;3. The existence of a Bantu philosophy can reveal promising vistas to educationists.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		When as educationists we review the situation which this discovery presents to us, it is not generally to regret that we must abandon our former views with respect to the Bantu, since the new picture that is opened out to us is full of hope. If the Bantu have a definite philosophy, a profound corpus of wisdom and an established code of behaviour, we can, perhaps, find in it a real foundation on which the Bantu peoples will be able to build their civilization. Perhaps we may say that hitherto we have been building on sand and we can grasp the several reasons why our educational work so far has failed to exercise as deep an influence as we wished. Possibly we shall feel regret for all the time and valiant endeavour that have been in vain, but we shall have the joy of cherishing the hope that we have at length discovered the true point of departure. We shall rejoice at having found &amp;quot;within&amp;quot; the Bantu something to render them more noble, without feeling ourselves obliged to kill first the man already existing. It is easy enough to deny or to misconceive the humanity of savages and, with the best intentions in the world, to destroy it. [112] It will, no doubt, be more difficult (because it presupposes a strong leaven of humility, of generosity and of interest in others) to love the man as he is, to understand him, to put ourselves in his place, to acquire his mental outlook. And yet, unless we give proof of this humane love, how can we &amp;quot;educate&amp;quot; him, or gain his confidence?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		However difficult the problem may be, all men of goodwill must cooperate in it, to test what is valid in Bantu philosophy and what is false, in order that all that is of real value may be put to use at once in the education and civilization of these &amp;quot;primitive&amp;quot; peoples.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;4. What should be the educator&amp;#39;s attitude towards philosophy in general.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		It has been said that our civilizing mission alone can justify our occupation of the lands of uncivilized peoples. All our writings, lectures and broadcasts repeat ad nauseam our wish to civilize the African peoples. No doubt there are people who delight to regard as the progress of civilization the amelioration of material conditions, increase in professional skill, improvements in housing, in hygiene and in scholastic instruction. These are, no doubt, useful and even necessary &amp;quot;values&amp;quot;. But do they constitute &amp;quot;civilization&amp;quot;? Is not civilization, above all else, progress in human personality?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		In his famous book, &amp;quot;Man the Unknown&amp;quot;, Dr. Alexis Carrel points out that our mechanical, material, industrial and-more generally-economic progress has scarcely aided the progress of humanity at all; that, on the contrary, it has contributed largely to make modern man less happy, by reason of the fact that it has misunderstood man and neglected him. On all sides one can hear to-day thoughtful people demanding that man should be recognized as the norm of economics and industry.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		One of the best things which the Europeans have brought to Africans is their precept and example in the matter of activity. Industrialization, however, the introduction of an European economy, permanent raising of production-all that is not necessarily a measure of civilization. On the contrary, it may lead to the destruction of civilization, unless sufficient account is taken of man, of human personality.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[113]&lt;br /&gt;		Does not civilization consist, before all else, in ability to entertain an intelligent view of the world and of life, to have convictions in regard to man&amp;#39;s ends, to be steeped in the enthusiasm of one&amp;#39;s faith to the extent of being ready to make sacrifices for it and to suffer for it?&lt;br /&gt;		What would a civilization be worth which lacked wisdom and a live enthusiasm? How can one pretend to think of a civilization devoid of a philosophy, an ideal, and of inspiration?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Finally, what education can be given without taking into account a philosophy and an ideal; and while mistaking the leanings and propensities of the human soul?&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;5. What point of view should the coloniser adopt in face of Bantu philosophy?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		If it is a crime against education to impose upon a race of men a civilization devoid of philosophy, of practical wisdom and of spiritual aspirations, it would be a still graver offence to deprive peoples of their own patrimony, which is their only possession able to serve as the starting point of a higher civilization. It would be unspeakable for the white educator to persist in killing in the African that human mind of his which is the only reality that prevents us from thinking of him as an inferior human being. It would be high treason on the part of the coloniser to free primitive races from what is of value, which constitutes a kernel of truth, in their traditional thought, their philosophy of life, an integral part of the very essence of their being. We have the heavy responsibility of examining, assessing and judging this philosophy and of not failing to discover that kernel of truth which must needs be found in so complete and universal a system, constituting the common possession of a host of primitive and semi-primitive peoples&amp;sup1;. We must proceed with the Bantu towards its sources to the point at which &amp;quot;the evolution of primitive peoples&amp;quot; was led into a false path by false deductions; and, taking this as our point of departure, help the Bantu to build their own Bantu civilization, a stable and noble one of their own. We see more clearly every day that the European civilization imparted to the Bantu is a mere superficial garb which has no&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;de primitifs ou de primitifs &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s.&amp;quot; (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[114]&lt;br /&gt;		deep impact upon their souls. We see that those whom we have spoken of as &amp;quot;&amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s&amp;quot; have merely arrived at the point at which they dare no longer profess their traditional wisdom to white men: that they are thus, in fact, denying their ancestors. Why do we not assist them to perceive the true Bantu wisdom hidden within its present errors? Why do we not educate them to discover and to venerate the ancient elements of truth ever present in their traditions? Why have we not assisted forward their evolution from this wholesome Bantu starting-point?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It must be recognized that the present results are, in the main, lamentable. We see every day the countless riches of the Bantu soul, but the general situation arouses agonised protests from us. We find ourselves surrounded by a horde of &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s, who look upon their kindred with misgiving, but who are themselves at sea with life, to which they can no longer attach meaning. Our thought and aspirations were in fact presented to them in a totally unassimilable form; and what we have tried to teach them of our Western civilization has remained something entirely foreign to them.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;6. Can we find in Bantu wisdom a healthy and stable base for a Bantu civilization?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		The key principle of Bantu philosophy is that of vital force. The activating and final aim of all Bantu effort is only the intensification of vital force. To protect or to increase vital force, that is the motive and the profound meaning in all their practices. It is the ideal which animates the life of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;, the only thing for which he is ready to suffer and to sacrifice himself.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This nostalgia of the Bantu soul for the strengthening of life has been diverted. It does, of course, claim to put itself under divine direction and to limit itself to such natural forces as have been put within its disposition by God. Even the invocations used in magical practices are addressed to God in order that they can be made efficacious.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		But, all the same, there is ceaseless deviation through the very frenzy of the search for vital strengthening, towards realities that are not life, or towards magical means of strengthening that are claimed to possess higher efficacy.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[115]&lt;br /&gt;		Man wishes to see the individual, to have proof of what he believes. He is led to substitute the symbol for the invisible reality; and to invent mechanical and automatic means to force human life to move forwards. He puts himself in the place of forces which transcend him; and even in the place of God himself. And so, whenever the accredited strengtheners of life seem to fail, he attempts the strengthening of life by his own powers. One after another he invents external means of safety and thinks of them more and more as agents operating on their own account, independently of mans own moral dispositions.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu proceed from the use of plants and roots to the &amp;quot;conditioned or ritual&amp;quot; use of forces, beyond the kulangwila miji, (the reinforcing of roots) by a man who has become qualified or has been initiated, to end in manga, perceived, prepared and rendered operative by the one and only nganga. We see the existence side by side of these different remedies graded from empirical to magical practice.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The general principle of the interaction of forces is thus shaded and modified. The Baluba tell us that the greater number of manga or magical remedies are inventions of recent date.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Fortunately, this multiplication of external means, efficacious through the power of man alone, ends by revealing its own foolishness. The Bantu do not hide the doubt in their souls concerning the exaggeration of manga, a doubt which finds expression in their proverbs.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		And so, in spite of all the abuses and deviations of beliefs, we can trace among them the operation of sound universal human commonsense. There is growing up amongst them again a healthier understanding of the original principles of their philosophy of forces. In spite of the weakness and ignorance which Bantu share with the whole human race; and in spite of all the mistakes of white people who banded together to destroy the thought of the Bantu, these African peoples, &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s and others, still preserve their essentially dynamic concepts of being, of growth and diminution of being, of the interdependence and interaction of beings, of vital ranks and of the ontological hierarchy. Their ontology remains over attached to their ancient and indestructible faith that all life proceeds from God or from our own conformity with the laws of the natural order of things. Even now, there is for the muntu but one sole reality, which above all else is worth [116] the trouble of being sought after. It is the intense vital force, the one and only possible norm of life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		If, among &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s or &amp;quot;those who chase after the Whites&amp;quot; much seems completely materialized according to the pattern among so many colonisers, there is fortunately a greater number of them who still preserve something of this human dynamic faith of their fathers. What they want more than anything else is not improvement of their economic or material circumstances, but recognition of and respect for their full value as men by the Whites. Their greatest and deepest sorrow is that they are treated perpetually as half-wits, as &amp;quot;monkeys&amp;quot;, as nyama. In this profound exasperation they prove themselves worthy sons of their fathers.&lt;br /&gt;		We can still cherish every hope for them, so long as they retain these human aspirations.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		These much decried &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s, who in fact are so profoundly distrustful or embittered, are ready to show the most zealous cooperation with white men the moment that they know that he is working only for the full and complete development of their human personality.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us observe that the Bantu have considered us whites, from our first contact with them, from the only point of view possible to them, that of their Bantu philosophy. They have included us within their order of forces, at an exalted level. They think that we must be powerful forces. Do we not seem to be masters of natural forces that they have never mastered. This proof is conclusive in their eyes. The natural aspiration of the Bantu soul was therefore to be able to take some part in our superior force. In this matter, Bantu society already includes a number who are disillusioned, especially among those whom we have made &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s, or Europeanised. Even among the tribes of the interior, some are to be found who seem to have lost the courage to live. This intense despair has been spoken of as the chief reason and ultimate explanation of the slow but sure dying off of certain peoples in the Congo. But among those whom we have called basenji, &amp;quot;savages&amp;quot;, the unspoiled people from the hinterland, the great majority fortunately still manifest a yearning to share our vital force.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		What the great majority of the Bantu want from us, and what they will accept with profound joy and gratitude, is our wisdom, our means of increasing vital force. On the other hand, [117] if we want to take anything to the Bantu and if we want them to accept the good things we have to offer, we must get to know how to give them in forms assimilable to Bantu thought. We must get to know how to present them as ways of increasing and strengthening their being, their vital force; and not as means of annihilating the mind of the Bantu.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Our system of education, our civilizing power, should learn to adapt themselves to this idea of vital force and fulness of life. So that it can at once burst into flower and purify itself, we must devote ourselves to the service of the life which is already theirs. The view of the world, the ideal for life, the moral system that we wish to teach them, should be linked up with this supreme final cause, this absolute norm, this fundamental concept: vital force. If we do not go this way to work, there remains no other way but to extirpate completely the whole Bantu philosophy. Now, who could do that? If we do not employ as our interpreter the forms of Bantu thought to propagate our truth, Bantu philosophy will fall back upon itself; and the rift between African and White will suffer further cleavage, becoming ever wider and deeper.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		There will remain with us a few renegades from Bantu thought whom we shall have decked out elegantly, housed comfortably, fed rationally, but without our having been able to prevent their becoming &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s with empty and unsatisfied souls-would be Europeans-and as such, negations of civilized beings. We shall turn them into moral and intellectual tramps, capable only, despite themselves, of being elements of strife. When a colonial looks back upon the way that has been traversed, he will find it very difficult to assess the results that have been achieved. He finds it very difficult to grasp the psychology of those &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s with whom contact has been interrupted&amp;sup1; or to know the real worth of these first-fruits of our attempts at civilizing.&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Mgr. Pierard, Vic.Ap. de Beni (Belgian Congo) wrote to me in April, 1946: &amp;quot;Your book is mots timely in affording us an occasion for serious review of our attitude towards Africans. One after another of us must admit that we have more or less lost contact with them, that we are entering upon a period of emergency... Your book will greatly help all men of goodwill here in this colony - missionaries as well as laymen -- to make a fresh approach to the native, grasping better the real facts of contact obtaining between him and ourselves. Only to the degree that we understand them can we attain to a love of them. Following the &amp;#39;law of fear&amp;#39;, which, it seems, exists at present in the colony, you present yourself as the herald of the new age of the law of love.&amp;quot;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[118]&lt;br /&gt;		However, it is the &amp;quot;savages&amp;quot; themselves, the &amp;quot;bush philosophers&amp;quot;, who have made the point. It is they who have clearly seen it. Recently I have heard Bantu of the old school say, with reference to our modern product, the Europeanized &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s &amp;quot;These are men of lupeto (money)&amp;quot;. They have explained to me that these Europeanized young men of ours know nothing but money, that it is the only thing possessing any value for them. They pretend to give up their Bantu philosophy, the living wisdom of the Bantu with its respect for life, for a philosophy of money. Money is their one and only ideal, their end and the supreme ultimate norm regulating their actions. They have no longer any respect for their old institutions, or for the usages and customs which, nevertheless, by their profound significance, form the basis of the practical application in Bantu life of natural law. The old philosophy, ancient institutions, ageless wisdom and the former usages of customary law none the less created and maintained the social order. Everything which was stable and of worth has been destroyed by this new value, this modern universal rule of conduct: lupeto, money. Such is the verdict uttered by these bush sages, so sadly misunderstood.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The proof has been given of the impotence of our economic civilization, our &amp;quot;philosophy of wealth&amp;quot; to civilize the Bantu, to produce &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s in the fine sense of the word. On the other hand, it has not been proved-the attempt has not been made-that the philosophy and wisdom of the Bantu are incapable of serving as the foundations upon which to raise a Bantu civilization. There are serious indications which allow the conclusion that the attempt would be worth trying&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;7. Has Christianity failed in its civilizing mission to the Bantu?&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Recently, in a still heavily populated district in the colony, a learned conference took place of colonial regional pundits... ecclesiastics being excluded. In the course of this Conversazione,&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1.&amp;quot;To enter so deeply into the mind of the natives whom one has taught as to be able to see things, not according to the mental outlook of one&amp;#39;s own race but following the paths which they have trodden to reach truths which they have not yet grasped, to see them through the eyes of their own minds, but from a fresh angle; and to present them to ourselves marvellously filled in, infinitely surpassing their own most secret aspirations...&amp;quot; (L&amp;#39;Ame Noire, by Sister Constance Marie: Editions Grands Lacs, Namur, Vol. II, p. 5.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[119]&lt;br /&gt;		the problem of the evolution of the &amp;quot;Black Race&amp;quot;&amp;sup1; was discussed. The conclusion of the meeting was recorded in a statement that several decades&amp;sup2; of evangelistic work was proving that Christianity had shown itself incapable of civilizing the Bantu. In short, the conference announced the failure of the missionary work of Christianity. Let us allow that these gentlemen made no attempt to propose any different or better way of civilizing, beyond considering some suggestions such as the amelioration of methods of cultivation, organised training for artisans, increased production and intensification of trade... which monopolised the agenda. There is no room for doubt, alas! that in the minds of these pundits it is in these categories alone that progress and the true civilization of the Bantu are to be found.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Let us admit, however, that it is not lay circles alone that have declared that evangelistic efforts among the Bantu have not been crowned with complete success. Certainly, some remarkable results have been achieved: solid results which, perhaps, would not strike the non-religious mind; and which do not allow themselves to be sized up in sensational statistics. There are cases galore of generosity and of dynamic effort which make us blush for ourselves. Yet what missionary could say that he was fully satisfied with the spiritual level of his Bantu flock? Something is lacking. There must be something wrong somewhere.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Is this inadequacy inherent in Christianity itself? Or does it lie rather in the method of evangelization? Or should we lay the blame on the Bantu? Are we to conclude that the Bantu are incapable of attaining civilization?&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		For anyone who holds that view there can be but one piece of advice: it is that he should systematically liquidate the Bantu; or, more wisely, that he should pack his bags and return to Europe! Neither do we think that we have any space to give here to a discussion of the intrinsic worth of the Christian conception of life.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		This book is addressed to colonials of good will. We see every day happy signs of the growing interest which the intellectual class in the colony is showing, in taking to heart its real mission&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. see p. supra (C.K.)&lt;br /&gt;		2. The Fr. &amp;quot;lustres&amp;quot; might suggest, ironically, FiveYear Plans, but the Du. is &amp;quot;decennien&amp;quot;!(C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[120]&lt;br /&gt;		to guide, I submit then to the loyal judgment of my readers from this class the reflections which I put forward.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Bantu can be educated if we take as a starting point their imperishable aspiration towards the strengthening of life. If not, they will not be civilized. The masses will founder, in even greater numbers, in false applications of their philosophy; that is to say, in degrading &amp;quot;magical&amp;quot; practices; and meanwhile the others, the &amp;eacute;volu&amp;eacute;s, will make up a class of pseudo-Europeans, without principles, character, purpose, or sense.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		It may be objected: let us admit that this aspiration towards the strengthening of life is to be found at the root of all Bantu tendencies. Where does that lead us? What does it tie on to? How can it serve as a foundation for a true civilization? This thesis of vital power is only, when all is said and done, a product of Bantu imagination, a subjective idea which does not answer to any reality. We cannot give up our rational account, which is objective and scientific, of the real in order to pursue this path. Besides, if this idea has no reality, it cannot constitute an end, it cannot be held as a norm, it cannot lead to the real&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The weight of this objection from a purely rational point of view cannot be denied. Let us observe, however, that there is in our Western twentieth century a system of thought in which the strengthening of life is still received as a reality, that is, in Christian doctrine. That which for rationalistic Western science remains just a hypothesis, an unproved theory, to wit, the intemal and intrinsic growth of being, in the way in which the Bantu teach it, is precisely what is taught by the Christian doctrine of Grace, founded on the assured rock of Revelation.&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Even in our twentieth century, the Church has not ceased to teach and to avow this reality; and masses of Christians keep constant the aspiration towards the strengthening of life, the&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. &amp;quot;It is quite clear, if Father P. Tempels is right, that the Bantu system of thought is not silly, childish or incoherent, though liable to corruption by magical practices; and ought to be taken seriously.&amp;quot; Prof. A.D. Ritchie, Prof.of Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, in the &amp;quot;International Review of Missions&amp;quot;, July, 1947. &amp;quot;This is not an isolated instance of this metaphysics. We find a taste of it both in Greek and in Christian philosophy and even in the latest developments of European thought. There is no need for astonishment and still less for talking in hushed, shocked voices at coming across well-known metaphysics.&amp;quot; Rev. P.P. Charles, S.J., in the &amp;quot;Bulletin des S&amp;eacute;ances de l&amp;#39;lnstitut Royal Colonial Belge&amp;quot; 1946-2.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[121]&lt;br /&gt;		raising of it, the taking of it into the supernatural, its participation in the constant intensification and internal growth of our life through union, living union, with God.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Catholic spirituality still teaches that God created humanity by reason of the living richness of His own Nature, by His Goodness, and in order to allow His creatures to have a part in His Beatitude, in His Love. This participation, we are taught, can occur in various degrees and in ever-increasing degree. That is to say, there exists on earth the possibility of vital, intrinsic and supernatural internal growth. This intense spiritual doctrine, which animates and feeds the souls who are in the bosom of the Catholic Church, finds an arresting parallel in the ontological thought of the Bantu. We arrive, therefore, at the unheard of conclusion that Bantu paganism, the ancient wisdom of the Bantu, reaches out from the depths of its Bantu soul towards the very soul of Christian spirituality. It is in Christianity alone that the Bantu will find relief for their secular yearning and a complete satisfaction of their deepest aspirations. And this has been admitted to me by I do not know how many pagan Bantu. Christianity-and especially Christianity in its highest and most spiritual form-is the only possible consummation of the Bantu ideal&amp;sup1;.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		But it is essential to set out this perennial doctrine in terms of Bantu thought and to present the Christian life that we offer them as a vital strengthening and a vital uplifting.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		If the Bantu cannot be raised by a Christian civilization, they will not be by any other. The superficial Europeanization of the masses can only kill Bantu culture. But just as Christianity could shape Western civilization, it has, in the truth of its teaching and in the human dynamic which it generates the resources to achieve, to purify and to ennoble a real Bantu civilization.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;8. A last objection: The Bantu ideal will be a vital force exclusively earthly and materialistic.&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		If the Bantu ideal were concerned with the temporal only, it would be difficult to see how it could serve as a basis for a higher civilization. Let us be objective. It is true that the&lt;br /&gt;		__________________&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;span class=&quot;noten&quot;&gt;1. Fr. &amp;quot;id&amp;eacute;al&amp;quot;, but Du.&amp;quot;heimwee&amp;quot;: home-sickness, nostalgia! (C.K.)&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		[122]&lt;br /&gt;		everyday ideal for happiness is, with the Bantu as with us in Europe, tied up with the commonplace and the transitory. It would, however, be wrong to conclude that their aspirations are always materialistic; and that care for higher things-moral, religious, humanitarian- is entirely foreign to them. There are abudant examples, some few of which have been cited in the course of this book, to prove that moral, legal, metaphysical and religious aspirations form a necessary part of all efforts towards a more vivid life. These few examples may suffice to secure that under the guise of paltry cares which fill so obviously the course of everyday life, there is to be found in the depths of the Bantu soul an aspiration, an irresistible allurement towards an infinite strengthening of life. All strengthening of life is to be found implicitly in this yearning, even though to-day it is often so ignorant of its real consummation.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		The Baluba say explicitly: You may have riches, prosperity, a large number of descendants, and yet on certain days be seized by a &amp;quot;kulanga&amp;quot; (yearning) or &amp;quot;bulanda&amp;quot; (nostalgia) and find yourself &amp;quot;kuboko pa lubanga&amp;quot; (Literally, &amp;#39;the hand against the cheek&amp;#39;; that is, with one&amp;#39;s head in one&amp;#39;s hands) without knowing why, beyond the fact that the human heart is never satisfied.&amp;quot;&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		That their ideal of &amp;quot;bumi&amp;quot; (life) is not limited merely to physical force appears clearly from the importance which they attach and the respect which they show to the paternal or maternal &amp;quot;blessing&amp;quot; and from the fear that they have of being &amp;quot;cursed&amp;quot; by their parents. It appears again in their profound aversion from all that is evil and from all vital destruction; and, in particular, from hatred, jealousy and lying, whatever may be their blackslidings in practice in these matters. Their lofty conception of life appears, finally, in the spiritual idea that they have, in their palavers, of social order, of right and of justice. This expresses itself especially in the determination which they manifest in the pursuit of restoration of life, in accordance with the order of life willed by God.&lt;br /&gt;		&lt;br /&gt;		Instead of our being able to say that the Bantu ideal remains materialistic even in its loftiest forms, it seems to me that we ought to say, rather, that even in their most material cares, the Bantu point of view is dictated by a lofty wisdom in regard to life, linking on to their philosophical principles.&lt;br /&gt;		The least that one can say is that it is worth the trouble of verifying [123] these theories in different tribes by a genuine trial. Such a trial has already been made by a number of missionaries and other colonials with astonishing effect in the spontaneous reactions of native listeners. It is, after all, they-Bantu of different tribes-who are the real testimony to the worth of the theory of vital forces which has been presented in this book.&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		[124] [Empty]&lt;br /&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&lt;strong&gt;&lt;a id=&quot;TC&quot; name=&quot;TC&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.aequatoria.be/tempels/FTEnglishTranslation.htm#TC&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: normal; text-decoration: none; text-align: left; color: rgb(0, 51, 102); font-weight: bold; &quot;&gt;TABLE OF CONTENTS&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;484&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;103&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Pages&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;50&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Foreword to the English Translation by Prof. Margaret Read, C.B.E.,&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;						Ph. D., M.A. Head of the Department for Education in Tropical Areas,&lt;br /&gt;						London University Institute of Education ...................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						7&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Note by the English Translator.....................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						8&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Preface by Prof. E. Possoz............................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						11&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;496&quot;&gt;					&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER I&lt;br /&gt;						IN SEARCH OF A BANTU PHILOSOPHY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;104&quot;&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						1. Life and death determine human behaviour.............................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						13&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;19&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						2. All human behaviour depends upon a system of principles.................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						14&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;31&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						3. The reasons for seeking the intellectual instrument; the fundamental&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;philosophical concepts and principles of the Bantu..............................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						16&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;32&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						4. The gulf dividing Africans and Whites will remain and widen so long&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;as we do not meet them in the wholesome aspirations of their own ontology.................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						18&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;20&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						5. Do these fundamental notions and first principles really belong to philosophy?..............&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						22&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						6. Can we lend Bantu thought a &amp;quot;philosophical system&amp;quot;?..........................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						23&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						7. Last introductory remarks.............................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						25&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;220&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;496&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER II&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;104&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;BANTU ONTOLOGY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						1. The Terminology used..................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						27&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						2. Method..............................................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						28&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						3. Bantu behaviour: It is centred in a single value: vital force.....................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						30&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						4. Bantu ontology&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;16&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;A. The general notion of being.....................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						33&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;30&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;B.&amp;nbsp;All&amp;nbsp;force&amp;nbsp;can&amp;nbsp;be&amp;nbsp;strengthened&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;enfeebled.&amp;nbsp;That&amp;nbsp;is&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;say,&amp;nbsp;all&amp;nbsp;being&amp;nbsp;can&amp;nbsp;become &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;stronger or weaker ....................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						38&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;C.&amp;nbsp;The interaction of forces: One being influencing another.................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						39&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;D. The hierarchy of forces: Primogeniture................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						41&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;E.&amp;nbsp;The&amp;nbsp;Created&amp;nbsp;Universe is centred on man: The present human generation&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;living on &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;earth is the centre of all humanity, including the world of the dead................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						43&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;F. The General Laws of Vital Causality......................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						45&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;187&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;497&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER III&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;BANTU WISDOM OR CRITERIOLOGY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;103&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						1. What is Bantu Wisdom?................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						47&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						2. Metaphysics, or the Philosophy of Forces, is within the capacity of every Bantu................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						49&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						3. Bantu philosophy is based on internal and external evidence..............................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						50&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						4. The Bantu differentiate philosophy from the natural sciences...............................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						51&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						5.&amp;nbsp;The&amp;nbsp;cleavage&amp;nbsp;between&amp;nbsp;the&amp;nbsp;domains&amp;nbsp;of&amp;ldquo;certain&amp;nbsp;knowledge&amp;nbsp;and&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;uncertain&amp;nbsp;science &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;among the Bantu.............................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						55&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						6. Is Bantu wisdom natural, super-normal or super-natural?....................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						56&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						7. Is there among the Bantu a knowledge which is not magical, that is to say, that is not &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;knowledge of force? Is their wisdom critical?...........................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						58&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						8. Are the Bantu strangers to all experimental science?.............................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						61&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;179&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;497&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER IV&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;						THE THEORY OF THE &amp;quot;MUNTU&amp;quot; OR BANTU PSYCHOLOGY&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;103&quot;&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Introductory Note.................................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						63&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;46&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						A. The &amp;quot;Muntu&amp;quot;, or the person............................................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is a living force, a personal force.....................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2. The increase or diminution of &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot;..................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3. The &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; is an active causal agent who exercises vital influence..............................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						64&lt;br /&gt;						64&lt;br /&gt;						66&lt;br /&gt;						66&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;68&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						B. The name or the individual...........................................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1. The general criteria defining the individual...........................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2.&amp;nbsp;Another&amp;nbsp;criterion&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;the&amp;nbsp;individual,&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;the&amp;nbsp;concrete&amp;nbsp;vital&amp;nbsp;force,&amp;nbsp;is&amp;nbsp;a&amp;nbsp;man&amp;#39;s&amp;nbsp;visible &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;appearance.................................................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						69&lt;br /&gt;						70&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						74&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;497&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER V&lt;br /&gt;						BANTU ETHICS&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;103&quot;&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						A. The norms of good and evil, or objective ethics.......................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1. Have the Bantu the idea of good and evil?............................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2. The roots of the knowledge of good and evil are bound up with their philosophy for &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;the Bantu......................................................................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 3. Human law accords among the Bantu with what is ontologically moral.........................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4 The tenacity of the &amp;quot;muntu&amp;quot; in the defence of his rights&amp;nbsp;is the consequence of his &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;attachment to his fundamental wisdom and to his philosophy.........................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						75&lt;br /&gt;						76&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						78&lt;br /&gt;						79&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;br /&gt;						80&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;95&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;font face=&quot;Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif&quot;&gt;B. Man good and bad: Subjective Ethics........................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1. The pervert or destroyer (&amp;quot;muloji&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;mfwisi&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;ndoki&amp;quot;.............................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2. The evil will excited or provoked...............................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3. The unconscious evil vital influence........................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4. What, to the Bantu mind, are conscience, obligation, fault and responsibility?.............&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						81&lt;br /&gt;						82&lt;br /&gt;						83&lt;br /&gt;						85&lt;br /&gt;						88&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;202&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;47&quot; width=&quot;498&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						[127]&lt;br /&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER VI&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;						RESTITUTION&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;102&quot;&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;21&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						Notions of penalty, compensation, punishment, forfeit and ontological purification..............&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						91&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						1. In what, first and foremost, do evil and injustice consist?.......................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						93&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;21&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						2. What evil demands restitution?....................................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						94&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						3. How evil and injustice are redressed..........................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;a.Wrongs done towards superior vital forces............................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b.Evil done to inferior.......................................................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;c.Faults committed in respect of equals.....................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1. Reparation to the dead and to spirit.....................................................................................&lt;br /&gt;						&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2. Re-establishment of life among living persons of equal status in law.........................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						97&lt;br /&gt;						97&lt;br /&gt;						100&lt;br /&gt;						101&lt;br /&gt;						101&lt;br /&gt;						105&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;219&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;		&lt;tbody&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;498&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						&lt;strong&gt;CHAPTER VII&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;						BANTU PHILOSOPHY AND OUR MISSION TO CIVILIZE&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td width=&quot;102&quot;&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						1. The &amp;quot;Noncivilized&amp;quot; and ourselves: Amende honourable..........................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						109&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						2. A troublesome idea for us &amp;quot;educationists&amp;quot;.................................................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						110&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						3. The existence of a Bantu philosophy can reveal promising vistas to educationists..........&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						111&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						4. What should be the educator&amp;#39;s attitude towards philosophy in general?.............................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						112&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						5. What point of view should the coloniser adopt in face of Bantu philosophy?......................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						113&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						6. Can we find in Bantu wisdom a healthy and stable base for a Bantu civilization?.............&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						114&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;26&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						7. Has Christianity failed in its civilizing mission to the Bantu?..................................................&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						118&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;			&lt;tr&gt;				&lt;td height=&quot;30&quot;&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						8.&amp;nbsp;A&amp;nbsp;last&amp;nbsp;objection:&amp;nbsp;The&amp;nbsp;Bantu&amp;nbsp;ideal&amp;nbsp;will&amp;nbsp;be&amp;nbsp;a&amp;nbsp;vital&amp;nbsp;force&amp;nbsp;exclusively&amp;nbsp;earthly&amp;nbsp;and&amp;nbsp;materialistic&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;				&lt;td&gt;					&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;						121&lt;/p&gt;				&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;/tbody&gt;	&lt;/table&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		IMPRIMERIE HERISSEY - EVREUX&lt;br /&gt;		D&amp;eacute;p&amp;ocirc;t l&amp;eacute;gal n&amp;deg; 1962&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;		Edition n&amp;deg; 64 - 3e trimestre 1959&lt;/p&gt;	&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;		&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;a id=&quot;DG&quot; name=&quot;DG&quot;&gt;&lt;/a&gt;&lt;strong&gt;Notes on the digitalisation and presentation:&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;110&quot; width=&quot;600&quot;&gt;	&lt;tbody&gt;		&lt;tr&gt;			&lt;td height=&quot;35&quot; width=&quot;23&quot;&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					1&lt;br /&gt;					&amp;nbsp;&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;td width=&quot;577&quot;&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					We have used the second edition of the English translation as published by Pr&amp;eacute;sence Africaine, Paris,1959.The&amp;nbsp;first&amp;nbsp;edition&amp;nbsp;was&amp;nbsp;published&amp;nbsp;in&amp;nbsp;1952.&amp;nbsp;See&amp;nbsp;.Tempels&amp;#39;s bibliography.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;		&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;tr&gt;			&lt;td&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					2&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;td&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					The text was digitalised in September 2006 for the website of the&amp;nbsp;Centre Aequatoria by Lies Strijker.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;		&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;tr&gt;			&lt;td height=&quot;21&quot;&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					3&lt;br /&gt;					&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;0&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;td&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					For technical reasons we have not indented the first lines of paragraphs.&lt;strong&gt;&amp;nbsp;Bold&lt;/strong&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;em&gt;italic&lt;/em&gt;, s p r e a d and other font types are reproduced as such in our digital version.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;		&lt;/tr&gt;		&lt;tr&gt;			&lt;td&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					4&lt;br /&gt;					&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;0&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;			&lt;td&gt;				&lt;p style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;					The footnotes are reproduced at the end of the page where they appeared in the text. Original page numbers appear between square brackets and precede the page in question.&lt;/p&gt;			&lt;/td&gt;		&lt;/tr&gt;	&lt;/tbody&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;p align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-align: justify; vertical-align: top; padding-top: 0px; padding-left: 15px; white-space: normal; font-style: normal; padding-right: 0px; margin-right: 0px; background-position: 0% 0%; &quot;&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Copyright:&amp;nbsp;On&amp;nbsp;several&amp;nbsp;occasions,&amp;nbsp;the&amp;nbsp;Centre&amp;nbsp;Aequatoria&amp;nbsp;contacted&amp;nbsp;Pr&amp;eacute;sence&amp;nbsp;Africaine&amp;nbsp;requesting&amp;nbsp;permission&amp;nbsp;to reproduce the text digitally. Our inquiries and requests have remained unanswered until today. We reproduce the text pending reaction from PA.&lt;br /&gt;	&lt;br /&gt;	Honor&amp;eacute; Vinck, November, 2006&lt;/p&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Mon, 18 Jul 2011 16:55:54 GMT</pubDate>
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      <item>
         <title>Évolution conceptuelle en histoire de l'art africain</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2F%25C3%2589volution%2Bconceptuelle%2Ben%2Bhistoire%2Bde%2Bl-ls-middotart%2Bafricain-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Eacute;volution conceptuelle en histoire de l&amp;#39;art africain&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	1. Le paradigme &amp;eacute;volutionniste, concept scientifique pour interpr&amp;eacute;ter les arts africains :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;acquisition d&amp;#39;objets culturels africains lors de la colonisation favorise le d&amp;eacute;veloppement de recherches scientifiques, tant sur le plan ethnologique que sur le plan de l&amp;#39;histoire de l&amp;#39;art. Pour Valentin Mudimb&amp;eacute;, il y a en parall&amp;egrave;le une qu&amp;ecirc;te promotionnelle de ces objets, consid&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s alors comme oeuvres d&amp;#39;art (d&amp;eacute;nomm&amp;eacute; : &amp;quot;art n&amp;egrave;gre&amp;quot;, &amp;quot;art primitif&amp;quot;). Ces deux approches utilisent le concept de &amp;quot;primitif&amp;quot; pour interpr&amp;eacute;ter les objets observ&amp;eacute;s et pr&amp;eacute;sent&amp;eacute;s.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;analyse esth&amp;eacute;tique de ces objets est fortement influenc&amp;eacute;e au d&amp;eacute;but par les paradigmes et les concepts &amp;eacute;volutionnistes issus de l&amp;#39;anthropologie &amp;nbsp;- &amp;quot;phase d&amp;#39;ethnologisation&amp;quot; des cultures africaines, qui consiste &amp;agrave; isoler les particularit&amp;eacute;s culturelles, les objets et les soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Agrave; la fin du XIXe si&amp;egrave;cle, Edward B. Tylor &amp;eacute;tablit dans son ouvrage Primitive culture : researches int the development of mythology, religion, language, art and custom (1871) une relation entre les arts et les mentalit&amp;eacute;s afin d&amp;#39;illustrer le caract&amp;egrave;re &amp;quot;primitife&amp;quot; et &amp;quot;inf&amp;eacute;rieur&amp;quot; des populations &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;es. Les arts sont d&amp;eacute;finis suivant leur d&amp;eacute;veloppement technique. Ainsi, &amp;quot;il s&amp;#39;agit d&amp;#39;art de ces individus rest&amp;eacute;s jusqu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; une &amp;eacute;poque r&amp;eacute;cente &amp;agrave; un niveau technique peu avanc&amp;eacute;, qui utilisent des outils mais pas des machines&amp;quot; (Sally Price 1995, 11). Et, au d&amp;eacute;but du XXe si&amp;egrave;cle, les scientifiques du Mus&amp;eacute;e ethnographique du Trocad&amp;eacute;ro de Paris (Mus&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;Homme) ne voient en ces objets qu&amp;#39;un &amp;quot;instinct&amp;quot; artistique comparable &amp;agrave; ce que l&amp;#39;on imagine &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;poque pour l&amp;#39;art de la pr&amp;eacute;histoire ou bien celui des enfants (Francine N&amp;#39;Diaye 1996, 15).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Agrave; ce propos, Orcel affirme dans son article de 1922 : &amp;quot;Soyons s&amp;eacute;rieux et convenons que le f&amp;eacute;tichisme n&amp;egrave;gre ne saurait donner naissance &amp;agrave; une nouvelle forme d&amp;#39;art (...) il y a une singuli&amp;egrave;re aberration d&amp;#39;esprit &amp;agrave; consid&amp;eacute;rer [les f&amp;eacute;tiches] comme des manifestations de grand art (...) Cette erreur d&amp;#39;appr&amp;eacute;ciation ne saurait &amp;ecirc;tre commise. Les oeuvres des ma&amp;icirc;tres europ&amp;eacute;ens anciens et modernes, les arts anciens de la Chine et du Japon sont de pures merveilles. L&amp;#39;art n&amp;egrave;gre, lui, ne cnstitue qu&amp;#39;une curiosit&amp;eacute;&amp;quot; (Orcel cit&amp;eacute; dans Raoul Lehuard 1997, 26-28).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;appr&amp;eacute;ciation et l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude de la forme des objets culturels africains d&amp;eacute;pendent fortement des pr&amp;eacute;ceptes &amp;eacute;volutionnistes et de la valeur esth&amp;eacute;tique occidentale, caract&amp;eacute;ris&amp;eacute;e par une pr&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence pour la sculpture figurative.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	2. Vers deux approches interpr&amp;eacute;tatives distinctes mais interd&amp;eacute;pendantes :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	D&amp;egrave;s lors, l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude des objets prend deux orientations ; l&amp;#39;une ethnographique en lien avec l&amp;#39;essor des mus&amp;eacute;es d&amp;#39;ethnographie et l&amp;#39;autre plus esth&amp;eacute;tique, influenc&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;attrait des artistes modernes pour les objets culturels provenant des colonies (Afrique, Oc&amp;eacute;anie).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude des arts africains s&amp;#39;est, alors, largement focalis&amp;eacute; sur la sculpture figurative. Ce choix arbitraire &amp;eacute;mane de la conception occidentale de la cr&amp;eacute;ation artistique classique. Les premi&amp;egrave;res classifications consistent donc en un ordonnancement des cr&amp;eacute;ations de sculptures sur bois des aires culturelles. Melville Herskovits, instigateur de cette d&amp;eacute;marche sur le continent africain, d&amp;eacute;limite les zones principales de cr&amp;eacute;taions artistiques au Soudan occidental (Afrique occidentale), &amp;agrave; la C&amp;ocirc;te de Guin&amp;eacute;e et au Congo (Afrique centrale), en excluant l&amp;#39;Afrique de l&amp;#39;est et l&amp;#39;Afrique australe. Ces deux derni&amp;egrave;res zones ne font donc pas l&amp;#39;objet d&amp;#39;investigations s&amp;eacute;rieuses, faute de grande statuaire comparable &amp;agrave; celle rencontr&amp;eacute;e dans les autres r&amp;eacute;gions africaines. Au Zimbabwe, par exemple, les arts shona et ndebele, caract&amp;eacute;ris&amp;eacute;s par des objets d&amp;#39;usage personnel comme les appuie-nuque, les &amp;eacute;tuis &amp;agrave; tabac et les cannes c&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;monielles, n&amp;#39;ont que r&amp;eacute;cemment sucit&amp;eacute;s un int&amp;eacute;r&amp;ecirc;t, et class&amp;eacute;s aujourd&amp;#39;hui dans la cat&amp;eacute;gorie depersonnal objects (objets personnels).&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	En outre, ces divisions g&amp;eacute;ographiques de la sculpture africaine sont arbitraires et limitatives, et ne mettent pas en &amp;eacute;vidence les contacts possibles entre les r&amp;eacute;gions et les styles artistiques.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Les d&amp;eacute;buts de la discipline de l&amp;#39;histoire de l&amp;#39;art africain sont donc fond&amp;eacute;s sur l&amp;#39;h&amp;eacute;ritage anthropologique, et plus sp&amp;eacute;cifiquement, l&amp;#39;ethnologie coloniale. Le pardigme dominant, apr&amp;egrave;s celui des aires culturelles, est celui du concept limitatif de la &amp;quot;tribu&amp;quot;. Ce terme employ&amp;eacute; par l&amp;#39;administration coloniale devient progressivement - surtout dans le courant des ann&amp;eacute;es 1960 - le mod&amp;egrave;le incontournable pour l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude des arts africains. William Fagg, &amp;agrave; linitiative de cet usage, d&amp;eacute;finit l&amp;#39;art africain en tant qu&amp;#39; un &amp;quot;art tribal&amp;quot;. Et le style artistique doit, selon lui, &amp;ecirc;tre attribu&amp;eacute; exclusivement &amp;agrave; une tribu : &amp;quot;one tribe, one style&amp;quot;. Derri&amp;egrave;re ce concept s&amp;#39;amonc&amp;egrave;le tout ce que les auteurs occidentaux jugent alors &amp;ecirc;tre authentiquement africain, en faisant r&amp;eacute;f&amp;eacute;rence &amp;agrave; cette &amp;egrave;re pr&amp;eacute;coloniale non ent&amp;acirc;ch&amp;eacute;e par l&amp;#39;impact de l&amp;#39;occupation europ&amp;eacute;enne.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Lors du Premier Festival des Arts N&amp;egrave;gres, ayant eu lieu &amp;agrave; Dakar en avril 1966, William Fagg fait part de sa th&amp;eacute;orie sur la &amp;quot;tribalit&amp;eacute;&amp;quot; des Arts n&amp;egrave;gres, toute fois avec quelques nuances :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;L&amp;#39;art est un produit des tribus, et dispara&amp;icirc;t avec la d&amp;eacute;tribalisation, et ce genre d&amp;#39;art n&amp;#39;est jamais cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute; en dehors de la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; tribale. En outre, chaque tribu est, en principe, un univers artistique &amp;agrave; part, son art vit sur lui-m&amp;ecirc;me, compr&amp;eacute;hensible pour ses membres, non pour ceux des autres tribus, car il est l&amp;#39;expression d&amp;#39;un syst&amp;egrave;me de de philosophie et de croyance religieuses propres &amp;agrave; la tribu (laquelle est un obstacle &amp;agrave; la appr&amp;eacute;hension des croyances et des arts des autres tribus). Ces g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;ralisations doivent &amp;ecirc;tre nuanc&amp;eacute;es si l&amp;#39;on veut tenir compte du fait que les tribus, et par cons&amp;eacute;quent les styles tribaux sont des entit&amp;eacute;s non pas statiques mais dynamiques, sujettes &amp;agrave; fusion et &amp;agrave; d&amp;#39;autres formes de m&amp;eacute;tamorphoses (...) Je voudrais d&amp;eacute;montrer, par cons&amp;eacute;quent, que le concept de tribalit&amp;eacute;, distinct du tribalisme, devrait &amp;ecirc;tre examin&amp;eacute; de tr&amp;egrave;s pr&amp;egrave;s en tant que moyen de sublimer les sentiments et la conscience tribale (...)&amp;quot; William Fagg, 1966.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fagg att&amp;eacute;nue ses propos dans le cadre du Festival dans le but, peut-&amp;ecirc;tre, de cadrer avec le projet social que cet &amp;eacute;v&amp;eacute;nement veut recouvrir. Ce projet social se base, en effet, sur l&amp;#39;ensemble des obsrevations des arts des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s africains. Le colloque a pour id&amp;eacute;e ma&amp;icirc;tresse : &amp;quot;l&amp;#39;Art n&amp;egrave;gre dans la vie du peuple&amp;quot;. En tant qu&amp;#39;art jug&amp;eacute; issu de la communaut&amp;eacute;, il est d&amp;egrave;s lors le ferment des nouvelles nations dans leur d&amp;eacute;veloppement. Les productions artistiques du pass&amp;eacute; sont valoris&amp;eacute;es et exploit&amp;eacute;es pour donner l&amp;#39;impuslion &amp;agrave; leur conservation et &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;essor de nouvelles cr&amp;eacute;ations. C&amp;#39;est donc une approche dynamique, allant &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;encontre de la vision statique et limitative du concept de &amp;quot;tribu&amp;quot; donn&amp;eacute; dans un premier temps par Fagg. Notons qu&amp;#39;&amp;agrave; cette &amp;eacute;poque apparaissent &amp;eacute;galement de nouvelles observations &amp;eacute;manant de recherches antrhopologiques qui incluent plus volontiers dans leur interpr&amp;eacute;tation des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s une approche dynamique, &amp;eacute;tant donn&amp;eacute; les r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute;s sociales rencontr&amp;eacute;es en Afrique aux lendemains des ind&amp;eacute;pendances. In fine, ce paradigme de &amp;quot;tribu&amp;quot; se voit &amp;ecirc;tre en d&amp;eacute;calage par rapport aux r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute;s sociales des jeunes nations africaines.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ainsi, les r&amp;eacute;flexions de Bascom et Herskovits sur le concept de culture au sein des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s africaines &amp;agrave; cette &amp;eacute;poque charni&amp;egrave;re entrevoient une nouvelle approche dynamique des composantes culturelles ; comme les comportements, les artefacts, les id&amp;eacute;es. Ceci est justement per&amp;ccedil;u par ces auteurs comme ce qui peut permettre d&amp;#39;int&amp;eacute;grer et de comprendre les &amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments affect&amp;eacute;s ou modifi&amp;eacute;s au sein des cultures africaines. Un tel point de vue sur la culture, en anthropologie, fait l&amp;#39;effet d&amp;#39;un stimulus dans le cadre des &amp;eacute;tudes en histoire des arts africains. &amp;nbsp;Il faut savoir, en effet, que tr&amp;egrave;s rapidement l&amp;#39;anthropologie, aux &amp;Eacute;tats-Unis, s&amp;#39;est d&amp;eacute;tach&amp;eacute;e du paradigme &amp;eacute;volutionniste pour se focaliser sur le concept de &amp;quot;culture&amp;quot;, d&amp;egrave;s le d&amp;eacute;but du XXe si&amp;egrave;cle. Ainsi, contrairement &amp;agrave; la France, l&amp;#39;approche dynamique et le processus de changement culturel sont &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;s de fa&amp;ccedil;on privil&amp;eacute;gi&amp;eacute;e. Nous l&amp;#39;avons vu pr&amp;eacute;c&amp;eacute;demment avec l&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tudes des aires culturelles en Afrique avec Herskovits.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	3. Les dimensions historique et sociale des arts africains :&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La dimension historique de la discipline n&amp;#39;est jusqu&amp;#39;alors pas encore engag&amp;eacute;e. Ces arts sont regard&amp;eacute;s selon un temps a-historique, issu de la vision ethnographique. Les styles artistiques ne peuvent donc &amp;ecirc;tre &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;s dans toute leur complexit&amp;eacute; et leur dimension &amp;eacute;volutive. Ainsi, dans le courant des ann&amp;eacute;es 1950-1960, des historiens d&amp;#39;art et des conservateurs am&amp;eacute;ricains entreprennent des &amp;eacute;tudes sur la vision artistique et esth&amp;eacute;tique au sein des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s africaines, afin de mettre eb &amp;eacute;vidence une &amp;eacute;volution stylistique des arts africains.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Roy Sieber fait part de l&amp;#39;importance de la tradition orale, de la linguistique et de l&amp;#39;ethnologie comparative pour tenir compte d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;l&amp;eacute;ments pouvant modifier la morphologie sociale des arts tels que les guerres, les migrations et le commerce. Les recherches portent donc d&amp;#39;abord sur les probl&amp;egrave;mes caus&amp;eacute;s par le mnque de pr&amp;eacute;cision des termes comme &amp;quot;art&amp;quot; et &amp;quot;artisanat&amp;quot;. Cette d&amp;eacute;marche d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;tude est bas&amp;eacute;e sur un premier constat, celui de reconna&amp;icirc;tre l&amp;#39;impossibilit&amp;eacute; de transposer des concepts d&amp;#39;une culture &amp;agrave; une autre - et encore moins des concepts non encore d&amp;eacute;finis. Ensuite, le but du travail est, entre autres, de mettre en &amp;eacute;vidence l&amp;#39;universalit&amp;eacute; de l&amp;#39;exp&amp;eacute;rience esth&amp;eacute;tique &amp;agrave; partir des &amp;eacute;tudes d&amp;#39;objets d&amp;#39;art. Ceci doit &amp;ecirc;tre con&amp;ccedil;u &amp;agrave; partir de la connaissance du d&amp;eacute;veloppement et du r&amp;ocirc;le de l&amp;#39;art au sein des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s en question - par une &amp;eacute;tude sociologique de l&amp;#39;art - et non par la transposition de concepts occidentaux vers d&amp;#39;autres contextes culturels.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cette nouvelle approche des arts africains d&amp;eacute;bouche sur une autre r&amp;eacute;felxion, le contexte originel des objets &amp;eacute;tudi&amp;eacute;s, en tant que lieu o&amp;ugrave; ceux-ci prennent tout leur sens. D&amp;egrave;s lors, de nombreux concepts sont d&amp;eacute;suets ou inappropri&amp;eacute;s. Ce qui contribue, selon Robert Goldwater, ancien conservateur du Museum of Primitive Art, &amp;agrave; remettre en question le concept de &amp;quot;primitif&amp;quot; gr&amp;acirc;ce &amp;agrave; une r&amp;eacute;conciliation (qu&amp;#39;il voit) entre l&amp;#39;histoire de l&amp;#39;art et l&amp;#39;anthropologie. Il est d&amp;eacute;sormais indispensable d&amp;#39;envisager, selon lui, une connaissance de ces oeuvres, reconnues comme telles gr&amp;acirc;ce aux artistes avant-gardistes de l&amp;#39;art moderne, &amp;agrave; partir de donn&amp;eacute;es recueillies sur le terrain afin d&amp;#39;&amp;eacute;difier la discipline de l&amp;#39;histoire des arts africains. Les concepts issus directement de l&amp;#39;ethnologie coloniale, pr&amp;eacute;conisant la fixit&amp;eacute; des cultures dansle temps et dans l&amp;#39;espace, sont progressivement d&amp;eacute;mentis. Les anciennes &amp;quot;m&amp;eacute;thodes de laboratoire&amp;quot; propores aux &amp;eacute;tudes anthropologiques du XIXe et du d&amp;eacute;but du XXe si&amp;egrave;cle dans le contexte colonial et qui envisagent une ad&amp;eacute;quation n&amp;eacute;cessaire entre le quotidien des &amp;quot;indig&amp;egrave;nes&amp;quot; et les descriptions faites par les Occidentaux, sont en phase d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre supplant&amp;eacute;es par de nouvelles enqu&amp;ecirc;tes de terrain. Pour Franck Willett, &amp;quot;le travail sur le terrain est maintenant presqu&amp;#39;une obligation, faute de quoi les consid&amp;eacute;rations des auteurs ne sont pas prises au s&amp;eacute;rieux&amp;quot; (1990, 40).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dans le courant des ann&amp;eacute;es 1970, des critiques &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;encontre de ces conceptions restrictives sont &amp;eacute;nonc&amp;eacute;es de mani&amp;egrave;re plus fr&amp;eacute;quente en histoire de l&amp;#39;art. Avec l&amp;#39;appui des recherches au sein des soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute;s africaines et &amp;eacute;galement gr&amp;acirc;ce aux expositions, le contexte socioculturel est de plus en plus pris en consid&amp;eacute;ration dans le cadre des interpr&amp;eacute;tations. Ren&amp;eacute; Bravmann apporte des &amp;eacute;claircissements sur les fronti&amp;egrave;res soit-disant infranchissables entre les populations. Lors de l&amp;#39;exposition Open frontier : the mobility of art in Black Africa &amp;agrave; la Henry Gallery de Washington, la r&amp;eacute;alit&amp;eacute; des mouvements op&amp;eacute;r&amp;eacute;s par les objets sur un territoire donn&amp;eacute; est illustr&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; partir des contacts culturels existant sur la zone allant des Grasslands camerounais jusqu&amp;#39;au centre du Ghana. Ces diverses situations de mobilit&amp;eacute;, qui peuvent &amp;ecirc;tre marqu&amp;eacute;es par des d&amp;eacute;placements des artisans, des dons d&amp;#39;insignes entre rois asante et chefs de village avoisinants tomb&amp;eacute;s sous leur autorit&amp;eacute;, viennent invalider le concept dominant de l&amp;#39;histoire des arts africains : &amp;quot;one tribe, one style&amp;quot;.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	La terminologie peut aussi &amp;ecirc;tre un indicateur de mobilit&amp;eacute; et de contacts interculturels. Au Congo-Kinshasa, le masque est d&amp;eacute;sign&amp;eacute; par le m&amp;ecirc;me terme, bifwebe, dans les r&amp;eacute;gions occup&amp;eacute;es par les Songye, Tabwa et Luba. Suzan Vogel, dans son &amp;eacute;ude sur les Baul&amp;eacute; de C&amp;ocirc;te-d&amp;#39;Ivoire, remarque que la totale compr&amp;eacute;hension du d&amp;eacute;veloppement artistique et social de cette ethnie ne peut &amp;ecirc;tre envisag&amp;eacute;e sans prendre en compte les populations voisines, proches sur les plans linguistique et historique (les Wan, les Yaur&amp;eacute; et les Akan). Par exemple, ma sortie des masques goli est apparue au sein de la culture Baul&amp;eacute; au d&amp;eacute;but du XXe si&amp;egrave;cle suite &amp;agrave; des contacts avec la population Wan, situ&amp;eacute;e au nord-ouest de la zone occup&amp;eacute;e par les Baul&amp;eacute;. L&amp;#39;abandon du concept de &amp;quot;fronti&amp;egrave;res tribales&amp;quot; laisse appara&amp;icirc;tre la dynamique des &amp;eacute;changes et des contacts ente les populations, exprim&amp;eacute;s &amp;eacute;galement au travers du style artistique.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ici le lien vers la vid&amp;eacute;o : &amp;quot;One tribe, one style : a text with a agenda&amp;quot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;iframe allowfullscreen=&quot;&quot; frameborder=&quot;0&quot; height=&quot;349&quot; src=&quot;http://www.youtube.com/embed/YN1HAn-z86M&quot; width=&quot;425&quot;&gt;&lt;/iframe&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Coryse Mwape&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Historienne de l&amp;#39;art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Walker Evans (ca 1930)&lt;br /&gt;	Par art-detective&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Sat, 13 Aug 2011 13:22:15 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>The gallery</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2Findex%2Cno_article%2C173%2Ccode_ISO_langue%2Cen.html</link>
         <description>&lt;img src=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/VignetteFichier,largeur,144,hauteur,108,table,articles,champ,image,cle,no_article,valeur,173.html&quot; alt=&quot;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;&lt;span class=&quot;TexteArticleParDefaut&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;The art gallery L'Oeil etla Main, located in Paris, is essentially devoted to the primitive arts. To come at the gallery, an &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/index-page-44-repositionne-Oui.html&quot;&gt;access map&lt;/a&gt;is available. If you wish to receive informations about the comingexhibitions, please leave us your email adress in the category &lt;span style=&quot;text-decoration: underline;&quot;&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.african-paris.com/FormulaireInscriptionNewsletter.html&quot;&gt;subscription to the newsletter&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;Opening hours of the gallery:&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;From Wednesday to Saturday&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;2pm - 7pm&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;To visualize a panorama of the gallery, click &lt;a href=&quot;http://www.panoramixe.com/Galeries.html&quot;&gt;here&lt;/a&gt;.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;For any information about a work of art :&lt;br /&gt;Tel. : +33 (0)1 42 61 54 10&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;M&amp;eacute;tro: line 12 (Rue du Bac ou Solf&amp;eacute;rino station), line 1 (Palais Royal mus&amp;eacute;e du Louvre station)&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Public parking:&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Orsay museum, &lt;span class=&quot;txt_gras&quot;&gt;8 quai Anatole France 																75007&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: 10px; font-family: Arial;&quot;&gt;Bac-Montalembert, 9 rue               de Montalembert 75007&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;african art / art africain / primitive art / art primitif / artspremiers / art gallery / art tribal / tribal art / Afrique / Africa /l'oeil et la main / galerie d'art premier / achat / vente / expertise /expert / exposition / exhibition / collection / collectionneur / Paris/ oeuvre / Verneuil / antiquit&amp;eacute;s / antiquaire / mus&amp;eacute;e / museum / masque/ mask / statue / sculpture / Agalom / Armand Auxi&amp;egrave;tre /www.african-paris.com / www.agalom.com&lt;/span&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Fri, 20 Feb 2009 15:24:21 GMT</pubDate>
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         <title>Nerd African Art</title>
         <link>http%3A%2F%2Fwww.african-paris.com%2FNerd%2BAfrican%2BArt-1.html</link>
         <description>&lt;div&gt;	African Art on the Internet&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	15th Triennial Symposium on African Art, Arts Council of the African Studies Association, 2011, Wednesday, March 23 - Saturday, March 26, 2011, UCLA, Los Angeles, California&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.acasaonline.org/conf_next.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Addis Art - Ethiopian Art and Artists Page&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary Ethiopian art and artists - paintings, sculptures and digital art work by students and professionals from Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. University instructor, Getahun Assefa&amp;#39;s paintings, drawings, sculpture, digital art. Also work by his brother, Tesfaye Assefa. Based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. [KF] http://www.addisart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Addis Art - Nouveau Art from Ethiopia&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Artists include Shiferaw Girma and Lulseged Retta. Photographs of each artist&amp;#39;s work, a biography, and video. Founded by Mesai Haileleul. [KF] http://www.addis-art.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Adire African Textiles - Duncan Clarke&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	History, background, and photographs of adire, adinkra, kente, bogolan, Yoruba aso-oke, akwete, ewe, kuba, and nupe textiles. The symbolism of images is often provided. One can purchase textiles as well. Clarke&amp;#39;s Ph.D. dissertation (School of Oriental and African Studies) is on Yoruba men&amp;#39;s weaving. See also the Adire African Textiles blog. Based in London. http://www.adireafricantextiles.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afewerk Tekle&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Ethiopia&amp;rsquo;s leading artist.&amp;quot; Biography, his paintings, sculptures, mosaics, murals, art in the artist&amp;#39;s home. Afewerk created the stained-glass windows at the entrance of Africa Hall, headquarters of the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa. &amp;quot;In 1964, he became the first winner of the Haile Selassie I prize for Fine Arts.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;In 2000, he was one of the few chosen World Laureates by the council of the ABI on the occasion of the 27th International Millennium Congress on the Arts and Communication in Washington DC.&amp;quot; He painted Kwame Nkrumah&amp;#39;s portrait and was awarded the American Golden Academy Award and the Cambridge Order of Excellence England. Prints of his work may be purchased online. http://www.maitreafewerktekle.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa and More.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Masks, figures, currency, weapons, trade beads, jewelry, weapons, kuba cloth, &amp;quot;museum quality&amp;quot; items. Based in Redondo Beach, Southern California. http://www.africaandmore.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa Direct&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells baskets, beads, beadwork, jewelry, carvings, weapons, metal currency, works in metal, clay, stone, masks, textiles. Includes detailed descriptions of items. The owners, based in Denver, Colorado, are wholesalers, &amp;quot;selling to stores and galleries as well as collectors, through eBay and our website.&amp;quot; [KF] http://www.africadirect.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa e Mediterraneo (Roma : Istituto sindacale per la cooperazione allo sviluppo)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Italian. A quarterly magazine about African culture and society. Has the table of contents. Topics covered: literature and theatre, music and dance, visual arts (painting, sculpture, photography), cinema, immigration. Owned by Lai-momo, a non-profit co-operative. Contact: redazione@africaemediterraneo.it [KF] http://www.africaemediterraneo.it&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa Remix, London, U.K., 10 Feb 2005 - 9 Apr 2005&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Festival of contemporary artists [Wangechi Mutu, Yinka Shonibare, Jackson Hlungwani, El Anatsui, William Kentridge and other], musicians, dancers. &amp;quot;the biggest exhibition of contemporary African art ever held in Europe. It includes work by over seventy artists from Algeria to Zimbabwe, as well as African artists now living in Europe and North America.&amp;quot; http://www.southbankcentre.co.uk/minisites/africaremix/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa Reparations Movement, ARM&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site has closed. See the Bernie Grant Archive. Grant helped establish ARM. Information on the movement to obtain reparations for the enslavement and colonisation of African people in Africa and the African Diaspora. Also to secure the return of African artefacts taken from Africa. Includes paper by Chinweizu on &amp;quot;Reparations and a New Global Order&amp;quot;, speech by British Prime Minister William Gladstone in 1871 on looted Ethiopian artefacts, a discussion list, ARM Talk, and a chronology of slavery. [KF] http://the.arc.co.uk/arm/home.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africa Talks.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;an online and face-to-face community of people interested in development in Africa.&amp;quot; Topics include globalisation. Has an essay &amp;#39;The Chief is Dead; Long Live the BBC: Globalization Culture and Democratization in Ghana,&amp;quot; by Audrey Gadzekpo about the unauthorized leak by the BBC of the death of the Asantehene Otumfuo Opoku Ware, I. Also features the art work of Glenn Turner. http://www.AfricaTalks.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African and Asia Visual Artists Archive, AAVAA&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AAVAA is a slide archive of contemporary art by artists of African and Asian descent working in the UK since the post- war period. Based at the University of East London, London. Supported by the Visual Arts Data Service (VADS) at the Surrey Institute of Art &amp;amp; Design, University College, U.K. VADS has an online guide, Creating Digital Resources for the Visual Arts: Standards &amp;amp; Good Practice. http://vads.ahds.ac.uk/collections/AAVAA.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Antiques Art Portal&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site of David Norden, art dealer based in Antwerp, Belgium. News of exhibitions, auctions, fairs, collections. Section on stolen art. Articles (such as Building a Collection). African art is sold at Norden&amp;#39;s site, Buy African Antiques Art. Information on Who&amp;#39;s Who in African Art, by Guy van Rijn (Archivist of the Yale University Art Gallery-van Rijn Archive of African Art, Brussels). Also see David Norden&amp;#39;s blog - http://africanantiques.blogspot.com/ The blog has an RSS Feed: http://africanantiques.blogspot.com/atom.xml http://users.telenet.be/african-shop/ or http://www.african-antiques.co&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Antiques - Discussion List&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Discussion list &amp;quot;for all lovers of genuine African or Oceanic Art.&amp;quot; For collectors, dealers and scholars. &amp;quot;It may also be used to present objects for sale but not if these objects are on auctions (like e-bay).&amp;quot; Moderated list hosted by Belgian art dealer, David Norden. http://groups.yahoo.com/group/AfricanAntiques/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Tribal, ritual, ethnic, traditional African art.&amp;quot; Narrative and photographs. Figures, fetishes, sculptures, puppets, dolls, door locks, carvings, statuary. Site by Paul Nieuwenhuysen, Head of Information &amp;amp; Documentation, University Library, Vrije Universiteit Brussel . http://www.vub.ac.be/BIBLIO/nieuwenhuysen/african-art/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art Contemporary Paintings by Eteli&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Macaulay Eteli is a Nigerian artist, from Bayelsa State, now based in Canada. Original paintings and prints in litho or Giclee. http://www.eteliart.ca&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art Express&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wildlife paintings and traditional African scenes by Elga Rabe. Based in Ballito Kwa Zulu Natal, South Africa. [KF] http://www.africanartexpress.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art Products&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;dedicated to promoting the work of African artists and artisans by bringing you quality products based on art created by these African artists and artisans and by telling you who they are, where they live and why they choose to become artists.&amp;quot; Home decorative products by Ghanaian artists. Site maintained by Sjoerd Visser. Based in Geneva, Switzerland. [KF] http://www.africanartproducts.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art Videos - Professor Christopher Roy&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;videos, filmed in rural villages in Africa since 2001...&amp;quot; &amp;quot;These DVDs are especially useful to those who collect African art, who teach African art history or anthropology,.....&amp;quot; Topics include - A Day in the Life of a Village in Africa; Death of an African King: The Funeral of the Omanhene of Techiman; The Beauty Competition of the Wodaabe People of Niger; African Art as Theater (masks); The Talking Drums of Techiman; Brewing Millet Beer in Africa, Countries covered - Burkina Faso, Ghana, Niger. Prof. Roy is Professor of Art History, University of Iowa, Iowa City. http://www.africanartvideo.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Arts Magazine (Los Angeles)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The University of California, Los Angeles, UCLA&amp;#39;s quarterly on the arts of Africa &amp;amp; its diaspora. Subscription information. Has the tables of contents with photos of the covers. http://www.isop.ucla.edu/africa/africanarts/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	An index to the contents of Volumes 1 through 30, (1967/68 through 1997) is on the H-Afrarts web site. Use the Search form for African Arts. The index is over 60 pages long.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Children&amp;#39;s Art Project&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;partners with Kenyan artists, art centers and orphanages to create and fund art classes for orphan and destitute children.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;purchase original, one-of-a-kind artworks from the children who participate in the program. 100% of the proceeds from the sale of art goes to the kids and their art centers.&amp;quot; Works with the Mason Murer Fine Art, Atlanta, Georgia. http://www.africanchildrensart.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricanColours.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	See the Yellow Pages for profiles of contemporary artists, examples of their work, showing stages of creation for some works. Artists include Charles Kamangwana, from Zimbabwe, painter, graphic artist, sculptor, photographer and artists from South Africa, Namibia, Angola Mozambique, Kenya. Essays on art, links / descriptions for exhibits worldwide, and a Contemporary African Art map. The Green Room is a discussion forum with mailing list. Founded by Carla van Beers from the Netherlands. Based in Nairobi. [KF] http://www.africancolours.net/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Conservancy&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells sculpture, masks, kuba cloth. Also offers &amp;quot;safaris&amp;quot; from Lusaka. The AC&amp;#39;s &amp;quot;mission is to preserve African wildlife and traditional cultures.&amp;quot; Its founder is Corinne Waldenmayer. Based in Vista, California. http://www.africanconservancy.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Contemporary&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Online gallery featuring contemporary african artists (paintings, sculptures, ceramics). Profiles and works by Fanizani Akuda, Ernesto Shikhani, George Lilanga and others. Site based in Portugal. http://africancontemporary.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Crafts Online&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Profiles of weavers, beadmakers, painters, sculptors, carvers, metal casters, tie-dye artists from Ghana, Ivory Coast, Mali, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Zimbabwe. Site for RUDO Craft (Rural Unity for Development Organization) - basket weavers, stone carvers and potters. Has &amp;quot;slide show&amp;quot; articles on creating glass beads, weaving, Kente cloth; lesson plans for schools. Shows artists influenced by Africa and sells crafts, books on African arts. Send African postcards. &amp;nbsp;[KF] http://www.africancrafts.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Encounters&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary art, mainly from Ghana. Artists include Wiz Kudowor, James Cudjoe, Ben Agbee and others. Site maintained by Kwamina Ewusie and Peter Swaniker. http://www.african-encounters.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Greeting Cards&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Proceeds benefit the St. Louis African Chorus. http://www.africanchorus.org/African_Greetings/agpix.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Loxo. Contemporary Art of Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Peinture, sculpture, photographie, bijoux. Photographs are from the 1950s-60s. Has a form to obtain more information on the artists or to reserve one of the works. &amp;quot;produit, d&amp;eacute;velopp&amp;eacute; &amp;amp; administr&amp;eacute; par Art Entraide France (AEF).&amp;quot; &amp;quot;(en partenariat avec DIAPPO au S&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;gal) f&amp;eacute;d&amp;egrave;re des artistes africains de disciplines diverses.&amp;quot; Site based in France. http://africanloxo.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Odyssey InterActive - Kennnedy Center for the Performing Arts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site for a festival in New York of music, dance, and theater from Africa and the African Diaspora. &amp;nbsp;Has interviews with artists, a directory of web sites about Dance, Music, Literary Arts/Storytelling, Theater/Performance, K-12 teaching resources. [KF] http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/aoi/artsedge.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Painters&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary art from African artists worldwide. The majority of the artists are from West Africa especially from French speaking countries or francophone West Africa. Artist profiles and photographs, examples of work, reviews and commentary, tribute to Alexander Skunder Boghossian. Discussion forum. Founded by Joe Pollitt, based in the U.K. http://www.africanpainters.com&lt;br /&gt;	African Paris&lt;br /&gt;	The best of the African art&lt;br /&gt;	http://www.african-paris.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Philosophy&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	E-journal sponsored by the International Society for African Philosophy and Studies (ISAPS) and published by Africa Resource Center, Inc. Articles include: Language, Culture, Science, Technology and Philosophy - Art and &amp;#39;Art&amp;#39; in Africa: Conceptual Clarification, Confusion or Colonization? - Race and Racism in the Works of David Hume. http://www.africanphilosophy.com/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Photographers (Eng.) / Photographes Africains (Fr.)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Provides background, exhibitions, publications for each photographer. From AfricArt-Afrique en Cr&amp;#65533;ations, Paris. http://www.mediaport.net/AfricArt/Photographes/index.en.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Pottery Forming and Firing Techniques: A Virtual Slide Show&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Slide show and paper by Christopher Roy, Professor of Art &amp;amp; Art History, Univ. of Iowa. Discusses the techniques of pottery making, the economics of pottery and the potter&amp;#39;s relationship to the community. [KF] http://www.uiowa.edu/~intl/rft/pottery.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Voices - Paa Joe &amp;amp; Fantasy Coffins&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Master carpenter, Paa Joe, creates designer coffins. Short video. African Voices is a site on a Rochester Institute of Technology server. http://www.rit.edu/~africa/index.shtml&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricArt&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Sculptures, masks. &amp;quot;Here you can see my favorite pieces of african artwork that I show you with great pleasure. For some of them, experts are welcome to give me the missing information. On most other pieces I can provide interesting informations myself. I am ready to accept any exchange offers.&amp;quot; Site of Jean-Jacques Fillinger. http://www.africart.net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricasArt.Net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Offers for sale stone scultpure from Zimbabwe. Profiles of each artists, photographs of works for sale. Does not provide a mailing address but the web site is registered to Mark Valli, Carlsbad, California. valliafcon@JUNO.COM http://www.AfricasArt.net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricaServer&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and Dutch. An artistically oriented directory to web sites and information on Africa. Features African virtual art exhibitions such as Antognoni Brunhoso (Angola), Gaba Meschac (Benin), Hama Goro (Mali), Dominic Tshabangu (South Africa). Covers Africa related events in the Netherlands, news for African artists &amp;nbsp;Has a directory of Dutch organizations focusing on Africa. Its Africans in Holland is a directory to &amp;quot;locate African expertise and African entrepreneurs in the Netherlands.&amp;quot; They also design web sites. Contact: info@africaserver.nl &amp;nbsp;Based in Amsterdam. http://www.africaserver.nl&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricaServer. African Artists in the Netherlands&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Over 30 contemporary artists (Benin, Cameroon, Comores, Congo, Egypt, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Morocco, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, Tunisia, Uganda) living in the Netherlands, their c.v., examples of work. http://www.africaserver.nl/kunstcultuur/index2_uk.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricaServer. Museums in The Netherlands and in Belgium&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Directory of museums which have a permanent Africa collection or organize exhibitions on Africa. http://www.africaserver.nl/kunstcultuur/musea_uk.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africraft&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Africraft embraces emerging art forms, traditional and comtemporary fusion of craft and sculpture or it could move into the realm of interior designs.&amp;quot; Masks, sculpture, furniture (stools, Yoruba chief&amp;#39;s chair), from Sub-Saharan Africa. Based in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. http://www.africraft.co.za&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AfricShop.com (Abidjan, C&amp;#65533;te d&amp;#39;Ivoire)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and French. Arts and crafts from Cote d&amp;#39;Ivoire certified by the government National Office of Arts and Crafts, the &amp;quot;only official organization in the Ivory Coast entiteled to deliver a guarantee and quality label.&amp;quot; Wood work, bronzes, drums, jewelry, pottery, toys, textiles, etc. Based in Abidjan, Cote d&amp;#39;Ivoire. [KF] http://www.africshop.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Africultures - Expositions&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features many African sculptors, painters, street artists, etc. The site for the Paris journal, Africultures, published by L&amp;#39;Harmattan. http://www.africultures.com/expo/expos.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afrika Museum (Berg en Dal, Netherlands)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Dutch and English. &amp;quot; The Afrika Museum in Berg en Dal is the only museum in the Netherlands devoted exclusively to the collection, study and exhibition of African art.&amp;quot; The Museum shows contemporary art from Nigeria and Zimbabwe and recreates living areas for Ghana, Lesotho, Mali, Benin, Cameroun. [KF] http://www.afrikamuseum.nl/indexeng.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afrikanischen Kunst Wende&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In German. Sells sculpture, terracotta, books. Holds auctions on EBay (Germany). Maintained by Brigitte und Hans Wende. Based in D&amp;uuml;sseldorf, Germany. http://www.afrikana.de/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afrique en Cr&amp;#65533;ations&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;...co-founded by the French Ministry for Overseas Development and the Ministry for the Arts, following the Afrique en Cr&amp;#65533;ation convention held in January 1990 in Paris&amp;quot; which brought together over 300 artists (plastic artists, theatre directors, musicians, choreographers, photographers, writers, etc.) and African and French partners.&amp;quot; http://www.mediaport.net/AfricArt/Entree/MenuGene.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Includes -&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	a calendar of events (dance, music, theater) mainly for Europe but includes the U.S. Brazil, Macao, arranged by country&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	a directory of festivals outside Africa, information on past music festivals&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afrique en Scenes, net edition of the very fine print magazune, information on African theatre, dance, and music in Europe and Africa, has a calendar of events. Many articles are also in English; click on the multi-stripe British flag.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	an online version of the print edition (Paris: Afrique en creations, 1996, 337 p.) of Guide du Th&amp;#65533;&amp;#65533;tre en Afrique et dans l&amp;#39;Ocean Indien - a directory, by country, of theatrical groups, festivals, arts and culture organizations, venues for performances&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A directory to African music in 100 CDs is a directory arranged by country, name of artists or groups, CD titles, artists (including compilations), style of music, instrument, language, type of music, and label. Includes short articles. This is a net version of the print edition which is a supp. to Afrique en scenes, No. 6 (Paris: Afrique en Creations, 1996, 60 p.).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afro Decor&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Home and office decorating accessories, mudcloths, fabric, batik paintings, pillow covers, custom decorating services, etc. Owned by Nel Hollie, based in Washington, D.C. [KF] http://afrodecor.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Afromart Gift Enterprises&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells baskets, djembe drums, etc. Based in Long Beach, California. http://www.afromart.net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Agence photographique de la R&amp;#65533;union des mus&amp;#65533;es nationaux&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Searchable database of &amp;quot;more than 100,000 colour transparencies and 500,000 black-and-white negatives relating to works of art in France&amp;#39;s national museums: paintings, sculptures, decorative arts, drawings and photographs.&amp;quot; One can order reproductions for use in books, etc. Fees are determined by intended use. Includes images from the collection of the Mus&amp;#65533;e des Arts d&amp;#39;Afrique et d&amp;#39;Oc&amp;#65533;anie (Paris). Based in Paris. http://www.photo.rmn.fr/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akan Cultural Symbols Project&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Project &amp;quot;to utilize the pictograms and ideograms encoded in the arts of the&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akan to decode some aspects of the history, beliefs, social organizations, social relations, and other ideas of the Akan of Ghana.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;The Project... comprises a World Wide Web site, &amp;#39;Akan Cultural Symbols Online&amp;#39; a series of books and catalogues, photo exhibitions; and multi-media CD-ROMs.&amp;quot; &amp;nbsp; A site rich in illustrations of Akan symbols used in architecture, cloth (Adinkra, Kente, Asafo Flags, etc.), cosmology, economics, knowledge, political beliefs, gold weights/jewelry, wood carvings. The project is directed by Dr. George F. Kojo Arthur with Dr. Robert Rowe, Art Dept., Marshall University, West Virginia. [KF] http://www.marshall.edu/akanart/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Akrofi, Godfred&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery of paintings by Godfred Akrofi, art instructor at the University of Cape Coast (Ghana). Additional paintings are on the site of the Eastern Washington University - University of Cape Coast (Ghana) USAID University Development Linkages Project Grant &amp;nbsp;page. {KF]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	American Museum of Natural History. Congo Expedition, May 1909-November 1915 [Art]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;In 1909,...Herbert Lang and James Chapin set sail for the Belgian Congo....By the time they sailed home five and one-half years later, they had collected tons of precious zoological and anthropological specimens...&amp;quot; http://diglib1.amnh.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contents:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	an introductory, multimedia slide show, diaries of James Chapin (mainly on Congolese birds)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	photographs (villages, primates), the watercolors of James Chapin including Congo mural paintings, birds, fish, reptiles, mammels,&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	excerpts from &amp;quot;African Reflections: Art from Northeastern Zaire,&amp;quot; by Enid Schildkrout and Curtis A. Keim (AMNH and University of Washington Press, 1990) including their photographs of Congo musical instruments&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	audio (requires sound card, headset or speakers) and video clips of the Belgian Congo Records made by the &amp;quot;adventurer and filmmaker Armand Denis during his 1934-35 cross-Africa expedition. They were among the first recordings made of the sounds of the central Congo. The Babiara people, whose songs may be heard..... are one of the four main tribal groups who occupy the Ituri Forest.&amp;quot; The video clip shows a traditional Mangbetu dance.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	a bibliographic essay on sources by Paula Willey, specially prepared bibliographies on Congo Conservation (314 citations), Description &amp;amp; Travel (1218 citations), Maps &amp;amp; Atlases (220 citations). [KF]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	AMICO, Art Museum Image Consortium&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A non-profit collaboration of art-collecting institutions to enable educational use of their digital multimedia. Use the Search to see a preview. For example, searching on ibeji retrieves six photographs with date (if known) and museum owner. Request forms for reproduction rights are provided as is a form for comments on the work. AMICO members include the Art Institute of Chicago and the Victoria &amp;amp; Albert Museum, London. http://www.amico.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ananse Village&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Supports &amp;quot;small scale production by talented craftspeople. A portion of our profits helps provide medical care and educational opportunities to the communities we work with.&amp;quot; Describes the making of glass beads in Krobo, Ghana. Sells beads, fantasy carved coffins, South African dolls, baskets, books, musical instruments, clothing, masks originating from Ghana, South Africa, other countries. Owners are Paajoe and Rebecca Amissah-Aidoo. Based in Fort Bragg on the Mendocino coast in Northern California. [KF] http://www.anansevillage.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Angolan Art Gallery - Embassy of Angola, Washington, D.C.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Hosted by the web page of the Embassy of Angola, Washington, D.C. are works by contemporary Angolan artists but there is no information on the artists. http://www.angola.org/culture/gallery/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Arms into Art - Nucleo de Arte&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English, Portuguese, Dutch, and Danish. A virtual exhibition in cooperation with Nucleo de Arte, an artists&amp;#39; collective in Maputo, Mozambique. Members made works of art out of AK 47 machine guns, landmines, and hand weapons. Has short biographies on the 14 artists. The exhibition was part of a &amp;quot;successful campaign to convince civilians to hand in arms in exchange for agricultural tools and to demine the countryside.&amp;quot; http://www.africaserver.nl/nucleo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art and Life in Africa - University of Iowa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	This site introduces a related CD-ROM project and serves as an online searchable catalog of the Univ. of Iowa&amp;#39;s Stanley Collection of African Art. The Key Moments in Life section describes events such as infancy, childhood, initiation, marriage, religion, leadership, elderhood, death and illustrates them with art in a mini-slide show illustrating front and side views of each piece.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Countries Database provides basic facts. A Types of Art database describes the art of each ethnic group and basic facts about the group.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Peoples Database includes the Ashanti, Bamana, Baule, Bwa, Dogon, Fang, Hemba, Ibibio, Kongo, Kota, Kuba, Lobi, Luba, Lwalwa, Makonde, Mbole, Mossi, Pende, Suku, Tabwa, Woyo, Yaka, Yoruba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Yourba Twins: Ere Ibeji from the Collection of J. Richard Simon.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	See also Seminar Papers on Yoruba Twins, Spring 2010.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Search the university&amp;#39;s Stanley Collection of African Art which contains over 500 objects. The Project is directed by Professor of Art, Christopher Roy. [KF] http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art as a Verb in Africa: The Masks of the Bwa Village of Boni&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Video trailer of a film directed by Yacouba Bonde and Carol Thompson. On mask performances of the Bwa people in the village of Boni, in central Burkina Faso. Filmed at the 2005 annual mask festival. [KF] &amp;nbsp; http://www.customflix.com/207205&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art for Humanity&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Promotes human rights through the production of Fine Art print portfolios, exhibitions, billboards and research projects which advocate various human rights issues in South Africa, across Africa and internationally. Sells original prints and posters on HIV AIDS and the UN Declaration of Human Rights. Has images from the HIV AIDS billboard programme and other exhibitions. An NGO formerly called Artists for Human Rights, based at the Durban Institute of Technology, Durban, South Africa. http://www.afh.org.za/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtMatters.Info&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;the website of ComMattersKenya Limited, a Nairobi-based arts, culture, communications and media firm......covers fine art, books, music &amp;amp; dance, film, video &amp;amp; television, fashion &amp;amp; beauty, puppetry, storytelling &amp;amp; theatre, entertainment, leisure and lifestyle in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania,...&amp;quot; Web magazine founded by Ogova Ondego. Articles on copyright in Kenya, homosexuality, festivals, etc. [KF] http://www.artmatters.info/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art on the Walls of the New South Africa - Reconstruction of Space and Identity&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Images of urban, public art in South Africa. The images were documented by Elisabeth Deliry-Antheaume from 1995-1998. Includes - Political &amp;amp; Social Comment, Children&amp;#39;s Art, spraycan art (graffiti), Ndebele house paintings. Has a Bibliography (includes citations to A.D.A. : architecture, design, art, the Cape Town journal) and audio commentary. [KF] http://www.cama.org.za/CAMA/countries/southafr/projects/Mural/files/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Related article: Cartes d&amp;#39;identit&amp;eacute;. Les murs peints d&amp;#39;Afrique du Sud, in French (5 p. in PDF) from Mappemonde, 1999, No. 1 (Montpellier, France).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Murals in the Cities of South Africa, by Beno&amp;icirc;t ANTHEAUME. Includes bibliography. On the web site of the Association RECLUS.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	School Walls, Walls as School in South Africa: An Outside View of Educational Institutions, by &amp;Eacute;lisabeth Deliry-Antheaume. 14 p. in PDF. Bibliography. On the site of the Wits Institute for Social &amp;amp; Economic Research.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Arte Abyssinia&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English, Italian, Amharic. Has a gallery of paintings by Abiye Melaku depicting life and landscapes of Ethiopia. Site founded by Chane Alemaw Kidane, based in Rome, Italy. [KF] http://WWW.ARTEABYSSINIA.COM&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Articimo: African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paintings, wall plaques, jewelry, hats. The owner is Franchesca Dove-Aryeh. Based in Accra, Ghana and the U.K. http://www.articimo.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Artnet Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Specializes in selling Shona sculpture. Has artist profiles. Site of Matthew Owen, London. U.K. http://www.artnetafrica.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtsConnectEd&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Database for teachers, from the Minneapolis Institute of Arts and the Walker Art Center (Minneapolis, Minnesota). Find materials by grade level. Has a database of African art images, save and annotate images, then retrieve them when you return to the web site. Share your image collection with others. [KF] http://www.artsconnected.org/artsnetmn/whatsart/kongo5.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Arts Council of the African Studies Association, ACASA&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Official site. &amp;quot;established in 1982 as an independent non-profit professional association affiliated with the African Studies Association (ASA).&amp;quot; On-line newsletter. Awards and past recipients, etc. http://www.acasaonline.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Arts Council of the African Studies Association (ACASA) List&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;The Arts Council of the African Studies Association (ACASA) was established in 1982 as an independent non-profit professional association affiliated with the African Studies Association (ASA) in the United States. The organization exists to facilitate communication among scholars, teachers, artists, museum specialists and all others interested in the arts of Africa and the African Diaspora.&amp;quot; http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~artsweb/welcome/acasa.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtsEdNet - The Great Mosque Djenn&amp;#65533;, Mali&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	History of the mosque, its current significance. Lesson plans, curriculum ideas for beginner, intermediate and advanced students, a timeline, an image gallery and diagrams. For K-12 and university teachers. From the J. Paul Getty Trust. [KF] http://www.getty.edu/artsednet/resources/Maps/Sites/Djenne/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtsVanBuren&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Prints, paintings, and notecards by Peggy Van Buren, Memphis, Tennessee artist. Themes are African-American also some African and Caribbean. http://www.artsvanburen.com/arthome.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtThrob, Contemporary Art in South Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	An electronic art magazine. Art news, exhibitions, features on artists, links to web sites, etc. http://www.artthrob.co.za/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtTrak - Tribal Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has a, members only, art auction database. &amp;quot;This data includes African, Precolumbian, Oceanic, and American Indian sales extending back to the 1960&amp;#39;s.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;For a charge of $300 you receive unlimited searches for 1 year.&amp;quot; Has a directory of appraisers, galleries, conservators, framers, etc. Maintained by John Buxton in Dallas, Texas. http://www.arttrak.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Artworth Publications&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Publishes books, exhibition catalogs by Michael Pennie on African art and West Africa, especially Ghana. Works in collaboration with the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board. Based in Melksham Wiltshire, U.K. http://www.artworth.co.uk/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Atal] Stella Atal - African Paintings and Postcards&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Born in 1979, the third child of Kenyan and Ugandan parents, Stella Mercy Atal survived a kidnapping attempt and seven years of civil war to become one of Uganda&amp;rsquo;s most promising young artists and designers.&amp;quot; Biography, examples of her work. The artist is based in Kampala. Web site maintained by Jan-Thomas &amp;Ouml;lund. http://w1.901.telia.com/~u90119985/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Axis Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Manhattan gallery is the only U.S. gallery specializing in South African art. Has online exhibitions such as &amp;quot;Saints, Spirits, and Strangers: Masks from Malawi.&amp;quot; Axis Gallery &amp;quot;represents several leading South African artists and photographers, and offers the largest selection in the United States of African art from South Africa. Axis Gallery&amp;#39;s on-line Store stocks books, videos, CDs, and CD-ROMS on South African arts and music.&amp;quot; http://www.axisgallery.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Baobab Project - Harvard University&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	An investigation into why certain cultures, places, and periods encouraged creativity and innovation in the arts, directed by Suzanne Preston Blier, Dept. of Fine Arts, Harvard. The Project Manager is Michael Roy. Has large graphics; it&amp;#39;s best to access this when you have a fast connection. The web site is a glimpse of the project which includes narratives (case studies), an image and ethnographic database, and a geographic information system. The case studies are: Asante political expansion, Batimalliba two-story architecture, Islam and indigenous African cultures, Shawabtis and Nubia, Yoruba masking traditions, and Ife, an ancient Yoruba city state. [KF] http://baobab.harvard.edu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Black Arts Quarterly (Stanford, CA)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Published by the Stanford University Committee on Black Performing Arts. Short stories, poetry, art from the Diaspora and Africa. http://www.stanford.edu/group/CBPA/#baq&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Boston. Museum of Fine Arts - Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Slide show of its African art collection. Descriptions of each piece, zoom in, send a photograph as an e-card. African musical instruments collection. Some kente cloth. [KF] http://www.mfa.org/collections/index.asp?key=37&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Bradshaw Foundation - Save the Giraffe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Project to record over 800 rock engravings including creation of a mould of rock art giraffes in the Tenere desert and the Air Mountains of Niger. Photographs of the giraffes, the Tuaregs, a report by Jean Clottes.One can purchase a limited edition cast of the two giraffes. &amp;quot;. All profits from sales will go to the Trust for African Rock Art to aid projects of Preservation.&amp;quot; The Foundation is a non-profit based in Geneva. [KF] http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/giraffe/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Bridge for Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;a federal 501 (c) (3) non-profit organization dedicated to promoting self-sufficiency and the dignity of work in rural Africa. We partner with African artisan groups to design, create, and market unique handmade African items. The artisans are paid a living wage for their work, while additional proceeds and results&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	from our fundraising efforts are reinvested in community development, training, and job creation in the region. We currently work with artisans in Namibia, South Africa, Kenya, Malawi, Zimbabwe, and Ghana.&amp;quot; Based in San Francisco, California. [KF] http://www.bridgeforafrica.org/catalog/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	British Museum - Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Museum holds African sculpture, textiles, graphic arts, objects from Ancient Egypt, money. Use the COMPASS database to locate African objects in these categories and others. The database comprises selections from the Museum&amp;#39;s collections. [KF] http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/world/africa/africa.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Brooklyn Musesum - Arts of Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Extensive information about the African Art Exhibition of 1923 - images, correspondence, the exhibition catalogue, press articles, Stewart Culin collecting trip reports. Based in Brooklyn, New York. [KF] http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/opencollection/african_art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Brunhoso, Antognoni&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paintings by the Angolan artist from Amsterdam, Antognoni Brunhoso. One painting is based on the book about Queen Lueji by the Angolan writer Pepetela. Includes scrapbook and decorated envelopes. [KF] http://www.africaserver.nl/virtual/exhibitions/antognoni/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cameroon: Masks and Statues&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Created by the Laboratoire d&amp;#39;&amp;#65533;lectronique et de traitement du Signal - Ecole nationale sup&amp;#65533;rieure polytechnique - University of Yaounde I.&amp;quot; Part of UNESCO&amp;#39;s la M&amp;#65533;moire virtuelle du Monde / Virtual Memory of the World program for the preservation of archival and library holdings world-wide. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/africa/cameroon.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cameroun Plus&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Extensive directory on all areas of life in Cameroun. Facts, recipes, tourism, arts and culture, newspapers, universities, etc. [KF] http://www.cameroun-plus.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Camp, Sokari Douglas - New Work&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibit of the sculpture of Kalabari-born artist Sokari Douglas Camp. Her work draws on the masquerades of the Kalabari and Yoruba. Includes a Quicktime movie clip for which you&amp;#39;ll need a Quicktime viewer. [KF] http://www.sokari.co.uk/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Camp, Sokari Douglas - A Tribute to Her Father&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Employing modern sculptural techniques, she creates large, semi-abstract figurative works that are inspired by the sounds, movements and colors of Kalabari masquerades, funerals, plays, regattas and festivals.&amp;quot; Exhibit at the Smithsonian National Museum of African Art. http://www.nmafa.si.edu/exhibits/sokari/title.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Catherine, Norman&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;a selection from the Pelmama Permanent Art Collection of important airbrush and other works by Norman Catherine which could be made available to interested institutions on long-term loan or as a part donation - 121 works in all - presented in chronological order.&amp;quot; Presented by The Haenggi Foundation Inc., Johannesburg and Basel, Switzerland. http://www.pelmama.org/PELMAMA_NormanCatherine.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Centre for Black and African Arts and Civilisation (CBAAC)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Established by the Nigerian government, in Lagos, to continue the work of the 1977 2nd World Black and African Festival of Arts and Culture. Program of Public lectures, Publications, Symposia, Exhibitions and Performances. Held an August 2001 symposium. Acquires materials on Black and African culture. Has a Library, Museum, Archives and Audio Visual Section. Publishes the Journal of Black and African Arts and Civilization. Will help connect penpals. http://www.cbaac.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ceramic Traditions of Mali - Mission Archeologique et Ethnoarcheologique Suisse en Afrique de l&amp;#39;Ouest.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photos and descriptions of pottery work by women. http://archeo.unige.ch/maesao/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chambers, Tom R.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chambers, a photographer, was a U.S. Peace Corps Volunteer in Zimbabwe, 1993-1995. He worked with the National Gallery (art) of Zimbabwe, run photography workshops for school leavers, and worked on a program with street children. [KF]&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Brown Univ. Postcolonial Literature site on Chambers: http://landow.stg.brown.edu/post/zimbabwe/art/chambers/aone.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Peace Corps experience: http://members.nbci.com/_XMCM/tom_chambers/index-15.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chiefs and Spirits Galerie, Contemporary African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Dutch and English. &amp;quot;was the first gallery in the Netherlands exclusively dedicated to the promotion of Zimbabwean sculpture.&amp;quot; Exhibits the work of upcoming African painters, provides a home-base to the work of the Nigerian artist, Toyin Loye. Based in The Hague, Netherlands. [KF] http://www.chiefsandspirits.nl/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cinnicinati Art Museum. Carl Steckelmann and the Congo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Carl Steckelmann, German-born trader and head of Tomlinson &amp;amp; Company of Liverpool, England, during the 1880s and 1890s, &amp;quot;traded in rubber and other ivory commodities along the Congo River area and the Loango coast, which extended from present-day Gabon to Luanda of modern-day Angola.&amp;quot; He acquired over 1,425 objects (ivory and wood objects, woven trays / plates, baskets). His collection was bought for the Museum in 1890. http://www.cincinnatiartmuseum.org/steckelmann/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Clip Arts &amp;amp; Deco&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. &amp;quot;La soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; Clip Arts &amp;amp; D&amp;eacute;co cr&amp;eacute;e en 2002 est d&amp;#39;abord une histoire d&amp;#39;amiti&amp;eacute; entre deux amis congolais passionn&amp;eacute;s d&amp;#39;art.&amp;quot; Paintings, sculpture. Includes a history of modern art in the Congo [DRC]. [KF] http://www.clipartdeco.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Condominas Eric - Ethnographie Ordinaire, Gens du Mali&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Portraits of Malien individuals and families. Resume and account by the photographer, based in Paris. http://www.photographie.com/talent/portfolio/condominas/portfolio/fr/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Conferences, Past&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	3rd Biennial Art History Symposium, Savannah College of Art and Design, February 26-27, 2010 - &amp;quot;Africa on My Mind: Contemporary Art, Home and Abroad&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;The goal of this symposium is to encourage representation by a variety of media and scholarship regarding cultural and geographical areas in Africa and the African Diaspora.&amp;quot; Keynote address by Simon Njami. Based in Savannah, Georgia. http://www.scad.edu/experience/events/arthsymposium/2010&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	14th Triennial Symposium on African Art, Arts Council of the African Studies Association (ACASA) March 28 - April 1, 2007, University of Florida, Gainesville. http://www.doce-conferences.ufl.edu/acasa/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art as Activism and its Limits in the Post-colony. Harvard University. Committee on African Studies. April 16-17, 2008. http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~afrart/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Conscience Africaine&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Cultural magazine. Interviews (such as with musician Jean Racine; artist D&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute; d&amp;#39;Almeida), art events. Based in New York and Abidjan, Cote d&amp;#39;Ivoire. http://www.conscienceafricaine.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary African Art Collection, CAACART&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Collection of Jean Pigozzi. Curator Andr&amp;eacute; Magnin. Has artist biographies, images of their works, list of their exhibitions. News reviews. Links to two exhibits - African Art Now: Masterpieces from the Jean Pigozzi Collection and Arts of Africa. From traditional arts to the Jean Pigozzi contemporary collection, Grimaldi Forum, Monaco. Also images of other exhibits: &amp;quot;J&amp;#39;aime Ch&amp;eacute;ri Samba&amp;quot;, etc. See also Artnet article. http://caacart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary African Art from the Harmon Foundation&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Artists from Cameroon, Congo-Brazzaville, Congo-Kinshasa, Ethiopia, Ghana, Liberia, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zimbabwe. Works mainly from the early to mid 1960s. Skunder Boghossian, Ben Enwonwu, Lamidi Fakeye, Malangatana, Pili Pili Mulongoya, Bruce Onobrakpeya, Gerard Sekoto, and others. Includes women artists. Photographs of images and slides sets can be ordered. History of the Foundation&amp;#39;s African art collection. On the web site of the U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland. [KF] http://www.archives.gov/research/african-art/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Coop&amp;eacute;rative des Producteurs Artisanaux de Butare, COPABU&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Crafts, baskets, greetings cards from Butare, Rwanda. &amp;quot;This cooperative exports to Italy, and it is rapidly expanding exports to other countries.&amp;quot; Supported by the PAB (Promotion de l&amp;#39;Artisanat de Butare) et de la FAAB (F&amp;eacute;d&amp;eacute;ration des Associations des Artisans de Butare). http://www.chez.com/copabucat/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	PAB: http://www.pab-faab.org.rw and http://www.pasud-faab.org.rw&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cornell Univeristy, Contemporary African Art Exhibit&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art work of Skunder Boghossian from Ethiopia, and Rashid Diab, Mohammed Omer Khalil, and Amir Nour from Sudan. Curated by Cornell art history faculty member, Salah M. Hassan. http://www.library.cornell.edu/africana/Library/African_Art.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Creative Africa Network&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;a virtual platform....connecting the creative world within and outside of Africa, giving visibility to the talents working in architecture, dance, design, fashion, film, fine art, literature, music, new media, performing arts and photography.&amp;quot; Is supported by the Puma clothing company. http://creative.puma.com/us/en/category/creative-africa-network/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cross Cultural Collaborative Inc.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;An educational non-profit that invites people to Ghana to promote cultural exchange and understanding through the arts.&amp;quot; They believe &amp;quot;that interaction between African and non-African artists enriches the creativity of both groups.&amp;quot; Artists work with Ghanaians on &amp;quot;collaborative projects that range from mosaic walls to documentary films.&amp;quot; Offers workshops in ceramic furniture, pottery, mosaics, etc. (for adults and children). Based in Massachusetts.[KF] http://www.culturalcollaborative.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Cross] Ed Cross Fine Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dealer in contemporary African art (East, Southern and West Africa). Features - Soly Cisse, Charles Sekano, Lovemore Kambudzi, Peterson Kamwathi, Jems Koko Bi, George Lilanga, Dominique Zinkpe, Richard Onyango. Artist biographies, selected works. Based in London. http://www.edcrossfineart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Culturebase&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;online information source on contemporary international artists from all fields. Find artists by name, region, country, genre (design, film, music, performing arts, visual arts, etc.). Artist profiles and their exhibitions. From the House of World Cultures and other European cultural institutions. http://www.culturebase.net/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	D&amp;#39;Addis et d&amp;#39;ailleurs&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Ethiopian paintings, jewelry, stoles, household linens, carvings, lamps, religious icons, Bible stands, Coptic crosses. The owner is Nolwenn Brunel. Based in France. http://www.daddis-et-dailleurs.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dak&amp;#39;Art, La Biennale de l&amp;#39;Art Africain Contemporain&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. &amp;quot;La Biennale....plac&amp;#65533;e sous l&amp;#39;&amp;#65533;gide du Ministre de la Culture de la R&amp;#65533;publique du S&amp;#65533;n&amp;#65533;gal, est un &amp;#65533;v&amp;#65533;nement artistique international consacr&amp;#65533; aux Arts Plastiques africains.&amp;quot; http://www.biennaledakar.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dapper&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. The mus&amp;eacute;e Dapper offers &amp;quot;expositions, des livres d&amp;rsquo;art et de litt&amp;eacute;rature, des spectacles et des concerts&amp;quot; for African and African diaspora events (art, music, dance). Les &amp;Eacute;ditions Dapper publishes books on African and the Diaspora. Based in Paris, France. [KF] http://www.dapper.com.fr/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Debre Hayq Ethiopian Art Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and Amharic. On 20th Century Ethiopian Art. Links to Ethiopian art sites, Brief history of art in Ethiopia by Esseye Medhin, chronology of contemporary Ethiopian art. [KF] http://www.the3rdman.com/ethiopianart/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Detroit Institute of Arts - African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Attractive presentation of their African art collection - Benin kings, queen mothers, men portraying women, etc. Images require a license for reproduction, for ex. to use a low resolution image for electronic reproduction is $5.00. Has a page for the Friends of African and African-American Art.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African art: http://www.dia.org/collections/aonwc/africanart/africanart.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.dia.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Documenta 11&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and German. Documenta is &amp;quot;one of the world&amp;acute;s best known and established exhibitions of contemporary art. It takes place every five years, in the North-Hesse town of Kassel [Germany].&amp;quot; Artistic director of Documenta11 was Okwui Enwezor. See also the-artists.org web site. http://www.documenta12.de/archiv/d11/data/english/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Dodo] Brian M. Dodo&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Zimbabwe graphic and web designer. Has examples of his work. http://www.bmdodo.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dreamers, les r&amp;ecirc;veurs du Kamer&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Cameroon-based group of contemporary artists, formed in 1998 in Yaounde . Site works only in Microsoft&amp;#39;s browser. http://dreamersreveurs.netfirms.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Duke University - Nka Roundtable on Contemporary African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Focus of the discussion is on teaching, research and publishing. http://dukeupress.typepad.com/dukeupresslog/2009/09/nka-roundtable-inaugural-post.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;Eacute;cole Africaine des M&amp;eacute;tiers de l&amp;#39;Architecture et de l&amp;#39;Urbanisme (Lome)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Etablissement Inter-Etats d&amp;#39;Enseignement Sup&amp;#65533;rieur. L&amp;#39;EAMAU d&amp;#65533;livre un dipl&amp;#65533;me d&amp;#39;Architecte - Urbaniste (DEIAU), apr&amp;#65533;s 6 ann&amp;#65533;es d&amp;#39;&amp;#65533;tudes&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	sup&amp;#65533;rieures, ouvertes aux titulaires d&amp;#39;un baccalaur&amp;#65533;at. Includes report of a trip to Mali to promote the school, issues of the student journal, Esquisse, courses, etc. A directory of alumni includes their research topics. The participating countries are B&amp;#65533;nin, Burkina Faso, Centrafrique, C&amp;#65533;te d&amp;#39;Ivoire, Gabon, Niger, Togo, Cameroun. [KF] http://www.tg.refer.org/togo_ct/edu/sup/eamau/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ekpuk, Victor&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Victor Ekpuk was born in Nigeria and received his Bachelor of Arts (Fine Art) in Painting from Obafemi Awolowo University...&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Writing and graphic symbols are the main inspiration for my style.&amp;quot; Paintings, prints. Available for sale. http://www.absolutearts.com/portfolios/v/victor/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	El Anatsui&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ghanaian sculptor, Professor of Sculpture, Fine and Applied Arts Department, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria. Based in Nigeria.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	October Gallery, London - biography, image browser, shows, bibliography. http://www.octobergallery.co.uk/microsites/anatsui/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ArtNet - biography, exhibitions, bibliography&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	BBC Africa 05 Photographs - http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcafrica/africa05/anatsui1.shtml&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition at the Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, Jan. 6 - March 4, 2007. &amp;quot;El Anatsui uses found objects such as metal liquor bottle wrappings and tin cans to create spectacular metal cloths...&amp;quot; &amp;quot;The works in this exhibition references broader concerns about the adverse affects of globalization, consumerism, and waste.&amp;quot; http://hoodmuseum.dartmouth.edu/exhibitions/gawu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Eloquent Elegance; Beadwork in the Zulu Cultural Tradition&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Maintained by Dr Hilgard Stanley Schoeman. Includes A brief history of the Zulu Nation, A brief history of Traditional African Bead Craft, The Zulu Beadwork Language (Technical), How to get hold of true Zulu Beadwork. There are illustrations of Traditional Necklaces, Adornment of the head, Adornment of the chest, waist and lower body, Adornment of the limbs, Items worn by Izangoma (specialists in traditional magic). &amp;nbsp;http://minotaur.marques.co.za/clients/zulu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Emory University. Michael C. Carlos Museum&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Information on the Sub-Saharan African Art collection with extensive descriptions. Emory University is in Atlanta, Georgia, USA. [KF] http://carlos.emory.edu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Emory University. Michael C. Carlos Museum. Odyssey Online&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Odyssey, for young people, explores the ancient Near East, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and 19th - 20th century sub-Saharan Africa. Teach about Africa through its art work. Covers people, ceremony, daily life, death, communication (the nsibidi script, the drums). Puzzles, games, worksheets, teacher resource site. http://carlos.emory.edu/ODYSSEY/AFRICA/ahomepg.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	eShopAfrica.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells custom-made coffins in the shape of fish, aeroplanes or beer bottles for $1,000, sells chests in similar shapes. Also drums, kente cloth, jewelery, musical instruments, carvings, baskets, textiles, clothing, carved boxes, barber signs, &amp;quot;We work in partnership with artisans and artisan&amp;#39;s cooperatives...&amp;quot; Shop set up by Cordelia Salter-Nour, based in Accra, Ghana. http://eshopafrica.com/acatalog/eShopAfrica_com_Decorated_chests_7.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Espace Fagueye&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. &amp;quot;Ce site a &amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; r&amp;eacute;alis&amp;eacute; &amp;agrave; l&amp;#39;initiative de Mame Fagu&amp;egrave;ye B&amp;acirc;, styliste et costumi&amp;egrave;re pour la promotion, la diffusion de l&amp;#39;Art d&amp;#39;Afrique...&amp;quot; Features the work of painters, sculptors, photographers, writers, dancers, etc. Based in Seysses, France. [KF] http://www.espacefagueye.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	An Eternity of Forest: Paintings by Mbuti Women&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibit at the University of California, Berkeley Art Museum. which presents the vibrant barkcloth art of the Mbuti women of the Ituri Forest of northeastern Zaire. Music of the Mbuti has inspired contemporary Western musicians. Includes musical slide show. &amp;quot;Once known as pygmies they inhabit one of the worlds oldest rain forests. [KF] http://www.bampfa.berkeley.edu/exhibits/mbuti/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ethnographic Arts Publications&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	1040 Erica Road, Mill Valley, California 94941&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	E-mail: eap1040@aol.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Supplies books, auction and exhibition catalogs, and serials on Africa plus other areas. [KF]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fela Project&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;The Fela Project, founded in 1999 by Trevor Schoonmaker, is a multimedia project exploring Felas life and legacy.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Other activities of the Fela Project include a web site, concerts, documentary film, performances, and a book of essays about Fela, Fela: From West Africa to West Broadway (Palgrave Macmillan, June 2003.) http://www.felaproject.net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	See also:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	New Museum - Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti, July 11 - September 28, 2003&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;painting, drawing, sculpture, photography, mixed media and sound installation, video, film, computer animation, and music, 34 artists present and give tribute to the many sides of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti.&amp;quot; Include a profile of Fela. The Museum is in New York city. See also New York Times, &amp;quot;Celebrating the Life and Impact of the Nigerian Music Legend Fela,&amp;quot; July 17, 2003, B1. [KF] http://www.newmuseum.org/exhibitions/375&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fesman III, Festival Mondial des Arts N&amp;egrave;gre, World Festival of Black Arts, 2009 February 1-21&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Third World Festival (the first was in 1966) whose theme is La Renaissance Africaine. A celebration of the art, music, literature, cinema, dance, theatre, architecture of Africa and the African diaspora. Free e-mail newsletter. http://www.fesman.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Festival de l&amp;#39;eau - River Festival, 12 janvier au 2 f&amp;#65533;vrier 2000, Ouagadougou&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Le Festival de l&amp;#39;eau est un festival itin&amp;#65533;rant de rencontres pluridisciplinaires entre des artistes d&amp;#39;origines diff&amp;#65533;rentes. Ces artistes nomades se d&amp;#65533;placent en pirogue et vont &amp;#65533; la rencontre d&amp;#39;artistes qui vivent dans les villages au bord du fleuve. Les modes de cr&amp;#65533;ation sont l&amp;#39;art &amp;#65533;ph&amp;#65533;m&amp;#65533;re et l&amp;#39;improvisation afin de pr&amp;#65533;server un rapport &amp;#65533;galitaire entre les artistes.&amp;quot; http://www.olats.org/zekri/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Fonseca] Osvaldo da Fonseca&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary art gallery of the Angolan artist. http://www.osvaldodafonseca.com.sapo.pt&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Four Corners&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site does not work without Java enabled. Sells fine basketry, beadwork, painted textiles, contemporary art, household crafts. Many items are from Kwa-Zulu, Natal, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Based in Orlando, Florida. http://www.thefour-corners.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Foutah.com Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paintings, sculpture by artists from Gabon, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Togo, U.S. Based in Decatur, GA. [KF] http://www.foutah.com/gallery.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Friends of Ethnic Art - San Francisco&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;founded in 1974 to provide a focus in the Bay Area for interest in the traditional arts of the Americas, Africa and Oceania. It is a non-profit, educational, open-membership organization that offers slide lectures and other programs to expand knowledge and public awareness of human expression in these traditional native arts.&amp;quot; http://www.friendsofethnicart.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Frier, Gary&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The work of South African artist, Gary Frier. http://www.friersart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Fry ] African Art Collection of Walter Logan Fry&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In 1933 Walter Logan Fry became a Cashier with The Firestone Tire &amp;amp; Rubber Company&amp;#39;s Bank of Monrovia. &amp;quot;During his stay in Liberia, he collected art and ethnographic objects, including Dan brass figures by Ldamie; Mende mask; silver, iron and aluminum jewelry; sword and scabbard; iron spear; cotton strip cloth; wool strip cloth with geometric weft inlay; and more.&amp;quot; Site includes Fry&amp;#39;s letters, photographs. Part of the The Digital Museum of Modern Art maintained by W. Logan Fry. http://www.dmoma.org/lobby/exhibitions/walter_logan_fry/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Funda&amp;#65533;&amp;#65533;o Calouste Gulbenkian. Artafrica&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Portuguese. Covers artists from Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea Bissau, Mozambique, Sao Tome e Principe and those resident in South Africa. For each artist has brief biographical information, a list of exhibitions, awards, examples of the artists&amp;#39; work. Based in Lisbon, Portugal. http://www.artafrica.gulbenkian.pt/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Cadjona (Dakar, Senegal)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Fine African antiquities and art in ceramic, wood, and bronze.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Babou NGett, Proprietor of Galerie Cadjona, learned the trade from his Uncle who began selling antiquities in 1945.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;The Cadjona Collection is derived from Babou NGett&amp;#39;s twenty years of travel in Burkina Faso, Benin, Cameroun, Cote d&amp;#39;Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinee, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and Zaire.&amp;quot; http://www.amatuna.com/cadjona&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie du Galion&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Gallery in Montpellier, the south of France, owned by Emile Proust. Sells sculpture, masks, cloth, pantings of Togo artist, Joseph Am&amp;eacute;dokpo, games, musical instruments, weapons, etc. http://www.galion-import.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Ezakwantu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Central, Eastern and Southern African masks, stools, neckrests, weapons, household items, baskets, pipes. In some cases, provides previous ownership information. Hair ornaments. Adornments. Contemporary art (sculpture, telephone wire plates, woodcuts). Musical instruments. Dolls. Coco de Mer. Based in Franschhoek South Africa. [KF] http://www.ezakwantu.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Loango&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Masks, sculpture from Angola, Congo (Kinshasa and Brazzaville). Based in Strasbourg, France and Pointe-Noire, Republic of the Congo. http://www.galerieloango.fr/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Peter Herrmann&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary and traditional African art from West and Central Africa. From a Stuttgart gallery. Includes Sokari Douglas Camp (Nigeria), Cheri Samba (Congo-Kinshasa) with photos of the artists, and others. See the artists list. &amp;nbsp;http://www.galerie-herrmann.de&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Toguna&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. &amp;quot;Cr&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute;e en 1999, la galerie Toguna est sp&amp;eacute;cialis&amp;eacute;e dans les arts anciens de l&amp;#39;Afrique noire. Une galerie mais aussi une maison d&amp;#39;Edition, qui actuellement r&amp;eacute;&amp;eacute;dite essentiellement des textes de personnalit&amp;eacute;s du d&amp;eacute;but XXe. Situ&amp;eacute;e dans le quartier des antiquaires de Toulouse, nous proposons un large &amp;eacute;ventail d&amp;#39;objets de toute l&amp;#39;Afrique Noire : masques, statuaire, armes, bijoux, ethnographie diverse ...&amp;quot; Owner: Pierre Brennetot. http://www.galerie-toguna.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Galerie Walu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Selected images from present and past exhibitions (such as Ibeji twin figures of the Yoruba people, Asafo flags), Chokwe art, Akan / Komaland, publishes exhibition catalogs, an e-mail newsletter, has book suggestions/tips, news artticles (in German and English such as one published 04.05.2001 &amp;quot;On the return of cultural treasures.&amp;quot; The owners, Jean and Jane David, are based in Z&amp;uuml;rich, Switzerland. http://www.galerie-walu.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery 219&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Taos, New Mexico gallery with 19th and early 20th century African art. http://www.collectorsguide.com/ts/g220.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery DeRoche. Art of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Private gallery of African, pre-Columbia art in Piedmont, California, owned by Dave DeRoche. Has an online catalog, including Nigerian Treasures from the Cradle of African Art (Nok figures). http://www.GalleryDeRoche.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery ZAK. Zeitgen&amp;ouml;ssische afrikanische Kunst&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Gallery of contemporary African art in Germany (1300 pieces).&amp;quot; Includes the work of Twins Seven Seven, Cheri Samba, George Lilanga, Alice Musarara, Kane Kwei (Ghana carved coffins), Fanizani Akuda and others. Gallery owned by Dr. Bernd Kleine-Gunk, a gynecologist who lived in Zimbabwe. [KF] http://www.galerie-zak.de&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	GandaSpace - GandaArt&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery featuring the work of Ugandan artists, David Kibuuka, James Kitamirike, Dan Sekanwagi. Artist biographies. http://www.gandaart.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gauteng Curios/Shona Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Southern African soapstone and serpentine carvings, masks, musical instruments, weapons, furniture, baskets, Ndebele dolls and beadwork, malachite, verdite, etc. Items range from 5 to 50 years old. http://www.icon.co.za/~mklopper/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gerdes, Paulus - Basketry, Geometry, and Symmetry in Africa and the Americas&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Special e-book issue of the journal, Visual Mathematics. &amp;quot;The book deals with the geometry and symmetries of designs and patterns created by mat and basket weavers in several African and American cultures. The type of basketry discussed is twill basketry&amp;quot; Countries involved are Mozambique, the DRC (Congo), and Angola. Includes a bibliographpy. [KF] http://www.mi.sanu.ac.yu/vismath/gerdbook/gerdcontents/contents.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Getty Research Institute&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Search their online catalog - http://opac.pub.getty.edu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.getty.edu/research/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ghawaco International&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Showcase for contemporary Ghanaian artists (Dr. Ablade Glover, Wisdom Kudowor (a.k.a. WIZ, Kofi Agorsor). Their works have been purchased by corporations, commissioned for public venues. Has artist biographies, sells original paintings and prints. Based in Ottawa, Canada. http://www.ghawaco.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ghersi, Luciano - HyperTextile HandWeaver&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mainly in Italian, some English. Site of Italian artist Ghersi includes handweaving among the Ewe. He works with the Blakhud Research Center in Ghana. http://utenti.tripod.it/ghersi/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Goldblatt, David - Intersections&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;David Goldblatt (b. 1930) lives in Johannesburg. Since 1948 he has been documenting life in South Africa through the medium of photography.&amp;quot; - Museum Kunst Palast (D&amp;uuml;sseldorf, Germany)&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	David Goldblatt: Intersections; Asbestos; Particulars&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	by Sue Williamson. Review by Williamson of Goldblatt&amp;#39;s photographic exhibition. Photos. http://www.artthrob.co.za/03oct/reviews/mstevenson2.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Review of the book, by Matt Damsker.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Goldblatt wins 2006 Hasselblad Award. 5 p. in PDF&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Article - &amp;quot;DAVID GOLDBLATT INTERSECTIONS&amp;quot; By: Arnold, Marion. Art Book, Feb2006, Vol. 13 Issue 1, p. 59-60.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Google Image Search&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Page or scroll half way down the page to Image Search. A search on Olusegun Obasanjo retrieved over 100 images including cartoons and for ibeji (twin figures) retrieved c. 60 images. Pages take a while to load. Results are pretty good though it&amp;#39;s a puzzle as to why some images are retrieved. http://www.google.com/advanced_search&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gore, Charles&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dr. Gore, researcher on the Edo Kingdom/Edo people of Benin City, &amp;nbsp;has a 40 pages bibliography on Benin including journal articles. http://www.cgore.dircon.co.uk&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Grains Of Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells African masks (&amp;quot;Songye Kifwebe and Pwo Chokwe&amp;quot;), sculpture (Ibeji twins, Namji dolls and modern sculptures), contemporary paintings, Kuba cloth, drums. Based in the U.K. http://www.grainsofafrica.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Guruve, Contemporary African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Specialises in contemporary stone sculpture from Zimbabwe (Richard Mteki, Nesbert Mukomberanwa, Locardia Ndandarika, Kennedy Phiri, Newman Chikuni and others). Also features painters, Charles Nkomo (from Zimbabwe) and Godfrey Banadda (from Uganda) and metalwork artist, Danisile Ncube (from Zimbabwe). Has a history of the Shona art movement. Based in London. [KF] http://www.guruve.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	H-AfrArts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A discussion forum, web site for those interested in the study of African expressive culture. A collaboration between the H-Net: Humanities-on-Line network and the Arts Council of the African Studies Association (ACASA). Its web site includes past discussions, recent publications. The moderators are Michael Conner of Indiana University and Raymond Silverman of Michigan State University. Patricia Thompson, Art Librarian, provides the tables of contents of art journals. The site has an index to African Arts, Vols. 1 thru 30, 1967-1998. [KF] http://h-net2.msu.edu/~artsweb/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	To subscribe, send an e-mail message to:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	listserv@h-net.msu.edu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	(with no subject line) and only this text:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	sub h-afrarts firstname lastname, institution&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Hamburg Mawingu Collection. Modern Makonde Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;a private museum digest of contemporary Makonde art from East Africa.&amp;quot; Sculpture, masks, paintings. Site owned by Peter-Andreas Kamphausen. Features Tanzanian artist, George Lilanga. http://www.makonde-online.de&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Hamill Gallery of African Art (Boston, MA)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has &amp;quot;permanent displays from 20 major peoples&amp;quot; from West and Central Africa. Include masks, figures, artifacts, textiles (Hausa robes, Asafo flags, Yoruba, Ewe, Kuba, Ukara, Kente, etc.), jewelry, books and posters. Every three months special exhibitions highlight one ethnic group or theme (African stools, Togo art, etc.). Has examples of past exhibits from 1991 + [KF] http://www.hamillgallery.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Harvard University Library. Visual Information Access&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	VIA &amp;quot;is a union catalog of visual resources at Harvard and Radcliffe. It includes information about slides, photographs, objects and artifacts in the university&amp;#39;s libraries, museums and archive.&amp;quot; Search the database by topic. Items with a purple diamond have online images. Searching on Ibeji for example produces 26 listings some with images. Images are not limited to those only at Harvard. Has, for ex., images of items in the University of California, Los Angeles. Fowler Museum of Cultural History, Los Angeles, California. [KF] http://via.harvard.edu:748/html/VIA.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Hip Barbershop - Brad Weiss&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photographs, taken in 1999 and 2000, of barbershops in Arusha, Tanzania. Includes the rap scene in Arusha and a popular mural artist, Seif Bakari, known as Nevada Art. Web site of Brad Weiss, Associate Professor, Dept. of Anthropology, College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia. http://www.wm.edu/anthropology/faculty/weiss/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Hodges, Ruth A. - &amp;quot;Kente Cloth: a Selected Bibliography&amp;quot; (1994)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Bibliography of books and articles. Ms. Hodges was Reference Librarian at&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Howard University&amp;#39;s, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center. http://www.founders.howard.edu/moorland-spingarn/KENTE.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	House of Stone&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells Shona stone sculpture, quality batiks, wire toys, to raise funds to help Zimbabwe children, particularly orphans. Supports the Highfield Community Child Care Project, Vimbainesu Children&amp;#39;s Home, the Dominican Sisters project, Farm Orphan Support Trust, etc. [KF] http://HouseOfStone.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Houston Museum of Fine Arts - African Art Now: Masterpieces from the Jean Pigozzi Collection&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Beginning in 1989, Swiss entrepreneur and photographer Jean Pigozzi made an extraordinary commitment to assemble a broad collection of contemporary African art,...&amp;quot; Includes work by Ch&amp;eacute;ri Samba and two intricate hairstyles. [KF]&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.mfah.org/main.asp?target=exhibition&amp;amp;par1=1&amp;amp;par2=1&amp;amp;par3=218&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ijele: Art eJournal of the African World&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Vol. 1, No. 1, March 30, 2000 + Ijele is a refereed electronic journal on &amp;quot;modern and contemporary art and photography, iconography, symbolism, and aesthetics of Africa and of African artists around the world.&amp;quot; Published three times a year by Africa Resource Center. Indexed by AfricaBib.Org. http://www.ijele.com/ijele/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ilunga, Enock&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	On Zambian artist Enock Ilunga. &amp;quot;Not confined solely to oil paintings, he also creates sculptures from scrap metal. Several of his large sculptures are visable at different locations in Lusaka, the capital of Zambia.&amp;quot; http://www.enockilunga.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Indianapolis Museum of Art - Cycles. African Life Through Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Interactive online exhibit on the themes of African ancestors, youth, leadership, adulthood. Vignettes of a Yoruba woodcarver, painting by Twins Seven Seven and more. Gallery of African art and culture which can be zoomed and rotated for more detail. Includes audio commentary (requires sound card/headset). A Teachers&amp;#39; Section &amp;quot;lists a number of disciplines in which national and state standards are addressed...&amp;quot; The site is a 2005 Muse Gold Award Winner (American Association of Museums). [KF] http://www.ima-art.org/cycles/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	International Center of Photography. Museum - Snap Judgements: New Positions in Contemporary African Photography&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Curated by Okwui Enwezor. Selected images, artists&amp;#39; biographies. Excerpts from the catalogue by Enwezor. Checklist of the exhibition. http://www.icp.org/site/c.dnJGKJNsFqG/b.1432339/k.9484/Snap_Judgments.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	International Council of Museums - Handbook of Standards. Documenting African Collections&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Guide prepared by mainly African museum professionals for describing and organizing museum art and natural science collections. In English and French. Sponsored by the International Council of Museums (ICON). [KF] http://www.icom.org/afridoc/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	International Council of Museums, International Committee for&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Documentation (ICOM)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ICOM, based in Paris, was created in 1946 and has 13,000 members in 145 countries. ICOM&amp;#39;s International Committee for Documentation has a site, in English and French, with the email and web addresses of many African museums and galleries. There are links to non-African museums with African collections and a section African programmes of international organisations with information related to African museums such as UNESCO&amp;#39;s World Heritage Centre. [KF] http://www.cidoc.icom.org/home.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	International Painting Biennial of the Islamic World, First, Teheran, 4 November - 25 December 2000&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Biennial is open to all artists from Islamic countries and those of Islamic communities world-wide. Sponsored by the Islamic Republic of Iran&amp;#39;s Academy of Art, in collaboration with Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art. Has images of the entries submitted including from South Africa. [KF] http://www.Pwislam.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Islamic Architecture&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Religious and non-religious structures (residences, markets, street views), from 26 countries including Egypt, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia. Part of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Rotch Library web site &amp;quot;Textual &amp;amp; Visual Resources on Islamic Architecture.&amp;quot; [KF] http://bloom.mit.edu/agakhan/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	G. I. Jones Photographic Archive of Southeastern Nigerian Art and Culture&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photographs taken in the 1930s by the late Gwilym Iwan Jones, Dept. of Social Anthropology, Cambridge Univ., on a web site produced by Southern Illinois Univ. anthropology professor, John C. McCall. Depicts the art and culture of the Ibibio, Igbo, Ijo, and Ogoni speaking poeple (Nigeria). Includes masks, household objects, shrines, musical instruments. architecture, has links to Nigeria and Igbo sites and McCall&amp;#39;s course syllabi [KF] . http://www.siu.edu/~anthro/mccall/jones/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Jones, Stella] Stella Jones Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Works by contemporary African artists and Diaspora artists - Tayo Adenaike, El Anatsui, Georgette Baker, and others. Based in New Orleans, Louisiana. http://www.stellajones.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kentridge, William&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Use the artnet.com Search to locate the Kentridge site. Part of the David Krut Fine Art Gallery (London, Johannesburg). http://artnet.com or http://www.artnet.com/ArtHome/ArtistIndex.asp?AILETTER=K&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum of Modern Art (New York City) - William Kentridge, Five Themes, February 24 - May 17, 2010 Major exhibition. http://moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2010/williamkentridge/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kibuuka, David&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	David Kibuuka, from Uganda, &amp;quot;demonstrates his artistic genius in oils, watercolour, acrylic and pencil drawings.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;All prints, giclees or serigraphs are limited edition and signed/numbered by David Kibuuka.&amp;quot; [KF} http://www.kibuuka-prints.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kibuuka.com Virtual Art Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paintings of Ugandan artist, David Kibuuka. Includes a gallery of Kibuuka&amp;#39;s work from an exhibition at The Art Room (San Francisco, CA). http://www.kibuuka.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kofa International Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells stone sculptors from Zimbabwe. The owner, Sharon Gordon is based in Oakland, California. http://www.shaonkofa.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Krut] David Krut&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features the work of William Kentridge. Includes David Krut Publishing - the publication, distribution and sourcing of books and digital material on contemporary South African art. Send virtual postcards by South African artists. Offices in Johannesburg and New York City. http://www.davidkrut.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kunsthandel Hermann Sommerhage -Afrikanische Kunst&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Hermann Sommerhage, German dealer for african arts only, presents his &amp;quot;Piece of the Month&amp;quot;. All pieces of high quality from allover black africa.&amp;quot; Based in Speyer, Germany. E-mail: hsommerhage@web.de http://www.sommerhage-africa.de&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Landau, Paul - &amp;quot;Photography and Colonial Vision&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Excerpt from a 1999 draft essay by Prof. Landau, History Dept., Yale. To be pub. in &amp;quot;Images and Empires: Visuality in Colonial and Post-Colonial Africa,&amp;quot; edited by Paul S. Landau and Deborah Kaspin). (H-Africa&amp;#39;s Africa Forum #6) http://h-net2.msu.edu/~africa/africaforum/Landau.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Lilanga, George&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site of the well-known Tanzania painter and sculptor who influenced Keith Haring. Includes a biography. His works can be bought on-line.Web site based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. http://georgelilanga.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Collections Online&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Browse some 200 works from the African Art collection - &amp;quot;body adornments, masks with bright paint and raffia, small figures of wood and ivory, bronzes, beaded crowns, and stools.&amp;quot; Especially beadwork and metalwork and images by categories - Figures, Masks, Ritual Art, Royal Arts, Utilitarian objects. Also search 150,000 library records. http://collectionsonline.lacma.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Lualuali, Kheto - Mozambican Painter&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Dutch, English, French and Portuguese. Lualuali lives and works in Amsterdam. &amp;quot;...contains 18 paintings divided in seven different phases.&amp;quot; Has a biography of the artist. http://www.africaserver.nl/kheto/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Madagascar Museum Society&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has graphics of paintings of Malagasy artist, Emile Ralambo with brief commentary. Their web site is found thru the home page of Pier Larson whose home page also includes a discography of 78 rpm Malagasy Records. http://jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu/~plarson/mms/homepage.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Malangatana Valente Ngwenya&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Portuguese. Site about Mozambique&amp;#39;s master artist, sculptor, poet. Biography and examples of his work. On the Mocambique page of the Centro de Inform&amp;aacute;tica da Universidade Eduardo Mondlane. http://www.mozambique.mz/malangatana/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	See also Painting life and philosophy in Mozambique, a review of the book, Malangatana, by Barbara Murray. http://www.africanreviewofbooks.com/Reviews/malangatana.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Malawi Art and Craft&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells batiks, carved chiefs&amp;#39; chairs, household crafts. Based in Doncaster, Melbourne, Australia. Contact details are on their website. http://malawiart.alphalink.com.au/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mambele: the Guido T. Poppe Collection of African Knives&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;African knives reflect the great craftsmanship of Central African blacksmiths before close contact with the West. The first explorers and early colonists in central Africa brought back a large number of local weaponry,,,&amp;quot; Many knives are from the former Belgian Congo. You must register to see larger images of the knives. Knives were also used to indicate social rank. [KF] http://www.mambele.be/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Manie Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Traditional art from Africa, Asia, Americas. Masks, sculptures, bronzes, textiles, Bogolan cloth, Touareg jewelry, contemporary sculptures, ceramics from Algeria. The owner is Conchita Giraud. Based in Montreal, Canada. http://manigalerie.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Masioanoke Gallery. The Visual Arts of Lesotho: Africa&amp;#39;s Mountain Kingdom&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art gallery established by Graham Taylor (Creative Arts Department, Machabeng College, Maseru) to &amp;quot;provide a showcase and market for artists living and working in Lesotho.&amp;quot; &amp;nbsp;Has painting, sculpture, weaving, drawing, crafts, biographies of the artists, an Art History of Lesotho and links to other African Art related sites. [KF] http://www.lesoff.co.za/artline/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Material Culture of Twins in West Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;The treatment of twins in West Africa is particularly unusual, possibly due to the high twin rate in this area. In the Cameroonian Grassfields twins are generally regarded as gifts from God. They are highly celebrated and respected.&amp;quot; Includes twin myths, a history of Cameroon with bibliography, a slide show of Cameroon scenes and art work. Site by Rachael Sydenham-Ndi,an undergraduate at Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, Canada, whose honour&amp;#39;s thesis in the Archaeology Department is on the topic of her web site. http://www.sfu.ca/archaeology/museum/ndi/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Maviyane-Davies, Chaz&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Zimbabwe design consultant, poster artist, filmmaker. The artist runs a design studio in Harare, the Maviyane-Project. Has a gallery of his work, biography, a video clip of his film. http://www.maviyane.co.zw/Default.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mavuart - Original Paintings by Nigerian Artist, Jonathan Lessor&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;His style which is characterized by heavy [impasto] as well as the different knife techniques, which today marks his identity,...&amp;quot; &amp;quot;His collections can be found at The Signature Gallery in Lagos, Abuja and London.&amp;quot; http://www.mavuart.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mbad African Bead Museum&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Builds and organizes &amp;quot;collection of beads, beadworks, textiles, sculptures and other culture relics....&amp;quot; Gives classes, produces &amp;quot;African Beads - a Coloring Book&amp;quot;. Based in Detroit, Michigan. The owner is Olayame Dabls. http://www.mbad.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mbeke Arts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Contemporary African Visionary Art&amp;quot; Joanna Mbeke, from a Nigerian family, now based in London creates acrylic paintings on canvas and paper. See also her MySpace page. http://www.mbekearts.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mellor, Stephen P. &amp;quot;The Exhibition and Conservation of African Objects: Considering the Nontangible&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Full text article in the Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, JAIC 1992, Volume 31, Number 1, Article 2 (pp. 03 to 16). &amp;quot;examines the use, function, and maintenance of particular objects with nontangible significance in some African cultures. Deductive observations about these objects allow possible conclusions to be drawn regarding: (1) an African perception of magic, sacred, and power; and (2) an African perception of culturally significant objects in and out of an indigenous context. The suggestion is stressed that it is the responsibility of the conservator to remain informed about an object&amp;#39;s nontangible attributes and to treat African objects with cultural dignity.&amp;quot; http://aic.stanford.edu/jaic/articles/jaic31-01-002.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Meque, Luis&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A review, by Chiedza Musengezi, of an exhibition of works by the late Zimbabwe painter, Luis Meque. On the web site of l&amp;#39;Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences, OLATS. http://www.olats.org/africa/galerie/gal-meque.shtml&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Merka Art Gallery, Contemporary African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features work of Mohamed Buwe Sidi Osman, a Somalia self-taught artist who works with acrylic. Dr. Osman is also a physician at the Kent Medical Center, Washington state. http://www.osmanart.homestead.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Metissacana&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Cybercafe and art gallery in Dakar. Biographies of artists and examples of their work. Pages may take a while to load. http://www.metissacana.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Metropolitan Museum of Art. Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has a searchable database, very fine photographs. &amp;quot;The African component of the department&amp;#39;s collection covers a large geographical area, from the western Sudan south and east through central and southern Africa. The works of art range from refined Afro-Portuguese ivories of the fifteenth century to formally powerful Fang reliquary figures.&amp;quot; Photographs include a Pendant Mask, Court of Benin, Nigeria. [KF] http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/department.asp?dep=5&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Metropolitan Museum of Art - Art and Oracle&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition of &amp;quot;African artifacts created to communicate with ancestors, spirits, and gods in order to obtain insight into human quandaries. &amp;quot;Essay by Professor John Pemberton III, scholar of African religions, explores five regional traditions and their divination practices. He has selected the Azande, Luba and Songye, Yaka, Yoruba, and Malagasy models of divination. Extensive commentary on figures illustrated. Detailed maps showing locations of the cultures. Bibliography. [KF] http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/oracle/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Essays: Divination in Sub-Saharan Africa, by John Pemberton III; Cultural Artifacts and the Oracular Trance States of the Sangoma in South Africa by Ingo Lambrecht; Depicting the Servants of the Spirits, by Yvonne Winters; Initiation of a Pondo Diviner (Igqira), by Anitra Nettleton;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Metropolitan Museum of Art - Master Hand: Individuality and Creativity Among Yoruba Sculptors&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;The Yoruba live in Nigeria and the Republic of Benin and are responsible for one of Africa&amp;#39;s oldest and most dynamic artistic traditions. Its origins are traced to the ancient city-state of Ile-Ife, famous for exquisitely refined and naturalistic sculptural forms in terracotta and stone created before A.D. 1100.&amp;quot; Articles on oriki (praise poetry), a Yoruba creation story; excerpts from the film Efe/Gelede Ceremonies among the Western Yoruba, by Henry John Drewal; Map. [KF] http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/YORUBA/HTM/main_fs.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Metropolitan Museum of Art. Timeline of Art History&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The African Art section covers different regions (Central Africa, Eastern Africa, Guinea Coast, Southern Africa, Western &amp;amp; Central Sudan, Archaeology &amp;amp; Rock Art). Maps, bibliographies, timeline for the continent. Explanations of features in the works depicted. Covers pre-colonial African empires &amp;amp; kingdoms, Islam in Africa, Christianity in Ethiopia and the Kongo Kingdom, African leadership, women, Trade among European and African precolonial nations, etc. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/splash.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mia Mali&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Crafts from Mali - baskets, jewelry, placemats, bedspreads, wire toys, figures made from recycled cans, foot stools, handbags, scarves, leather boxes, bronze animals. Serves wholesale buyers. Does not deal in museum quality antiques. &amp;quot;Our method is to work side by side with artisans in their or our workshops while developing new products.&amp;quot; Based in Bamako, Mali. [KF] http://www.miamali.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Michigan State University Museum. African Connections. Perspectives on Collecting Culture. January 21 to September 5, 1999&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;African Connections&amp;quot; celebrates the growth of Michigan State University Museum&amp;#39;s collection of African material culture over the last ten years.&amp;quot; For each item illustrated provides a detailed description of the object, background on the donors, a bibliography, related internet resources, map. Includes statements by each donor along with their donations. Curated by Dr. R.A. Silverman, Art Department, MSU. http://www.museum.msu.edu/exhibitions/Virtual/afcon/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mora Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	On-line gallery for Senegalese artists, painters, Mor Faye, Ba-Rah and others. Sells videos on the artists. Photos of Ba-Rah with prominent individuals. Site based in New York city. [KF] http://www.moragallery.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mozambican Artists - 3a Exposicao de Pintura da Casa de Mocambique&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Biographical information, exhibits, awards of 7 Mozambican artists including Malangatana N&amp;#39;Gwenya. The text is in Portuguese.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Malangatana - http://www.portugalnet.pt/encontro/mocambiq/arte/malangat.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Main page - http://www.portugalnet.pt/encontro/mocambiq/arte/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Muafangejo] John Muafangejo Trust&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Muafangejo &amp;quot;is now considered among the best exponents of linocut in the twentieth century.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;official web site for both the works of the International Artist John Muafangejo and that of the John Muafangejo Trust which holds worldwide copyright to his work.&amp;quot; Has a few examples of his linocuts. Based in Oxford, U.K. http://www.johnmuafangejo.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mukondeni, Arts and Crafts Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Venda and Shangan art (potters, sculptures, musical instruments) with artist profiles. Based in Randburg, South Africa. http://www.mukondeni.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Munyaradzi&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Featuares the work of the late Henry Munyaradzi, Zimbabwean Shona master stone sculptor, and of his son, Mike Munyaradzi. Biographies, background, galleries. Stone bowls and sculptures by Mike Munyaradzi can be purchased. Has a huge online catalogue of Henry Munyaradzi&amp;#39;s work; collectors are invited to contribute to it. http://www.munyaradzi.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Murungo Ano Penga Inc.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells Shona sculpture from Zimbabwe. Also metal sculpture, batik, carvings. Based in Edmonton, Canada. http://www.murungogallery.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Musa Heritage Gallery (Mus&amp;#39;Art Gallery)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;a museum with focus on the Arts and Crafts of Cameroon&amp;#39;s Western Grassfields.&amp;quot; The Director is Mangong Peter Musa. Carvings, sculpture, artwork from tree bark (barkcloth applique). Also collects Cameroon music. School outreach program. Works with the African Swedish Museum Nework. Based in Kumbo, Nso, NWP, Cameroon. [KF] http://www.musartgallery.info.ms&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mus&amp;#65533;e Historique d&amp;#39;Abomey&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Includes a history of kingdoms and kings in Dahomey (Benin), their geneaology, the museum collections, a bibliography, a page on the Amazons (women warriors), the creation and history of the famous appliques cloth, a children&amp;#39;s section. Has some great postcards to send (a nice idea for students learning French). [KF] http://epa-prema.net/abomey/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mus&amp;#65533;e des Arts d&amp;#39;Afrique et d&amp;#39;Oc&amp;#65533;anie MAAO (Paris)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;A la fin de l&amp;#39;ann&amp;eacute;e 2002, les collections du mus&amp;eacute;e des arts d&amp;#39;Afrique et d&amp;#39;Oc&amp;eacute;anie (MAAO) ont quitt&amp;eacute; le Palais de la Porte Dor&amp;eacute;e afin d&amp;#39;&amp;ecirc;tre int&amp;eacute;gr&amp;eacute;es au futur mus&amp;eacute;e du quai Branly.&amp;quot; Now home to the Palais de la Porte Dor&amp;eacute;e Aquarium tropical which exhibits fish from Africa and other areas. Has history of the museum. http://www.musee-afriqueoceanie.fr/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mus&amp;eacute;e du Quai Branly, (Paris)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French, English, Spanish. Museum devoted to the arts of Africa, Asia, Oceania and the Americas. A large part of the collections are from the former Mus&amp;eacute;e des Arts Africains et Oc&amp;eacute;aniens and the Mus&amp;eacute;e de l&amp;#39;Homme. &amp;quot;for Mr. Chirac, it seems, the museum is above all a response to the new political imperative of rejecting ethnocentrism.&amp;quot; - New York Times, June 22, 2006, &amp;quot;Imperialist? Moi? Not the Mus&amp;eacute;e du Quai Branly&amp;quot;. http://www.quaibranly.fr/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Musee Virtuel du Burkina Faso&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site from Burkina Faso. Has a gallery of masks. http://www.musee.bf/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum for African Art (New York City)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Information on their exhibitions, publications, their travel programs, etc. Includes photographs. Hosts Facing the Mask (&amp;quot;This specially designed website brings African masks to life with exhibition information, activities for kids and curricula lessons for teachers.&amp;quot;) [KF] http://www.africanart.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum of the African Diaspora, MOAD (San Francisco)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has an active program of exhibitions of African art, photography, and other events. 685 Mission Street (at Third), San Francisco, California. http://www.moadsf.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum Professionals&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Moderated discussion list in English and German whose main geographical emphasis is on Europe. Past messages are on the web site. http://hclist.de/museum/index1.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum Security Network&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site for information on threats to the world&amp;#39;s museums. Requires joining their mailing list to access site content. [KF] http://museum-security.org/indexa.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Mutu] Wangechi Mutu at The Saatchi Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The art and works of Kenyan born Wangechi Mutu. &amp;quot;...Her work explores the contradictions of female and cultural identity.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Wangechi Mutu uses collage as a means of both physically and conceptually bringing layered depth to her work. &amp;quot;The Saatchi Gallery is an innovative forum for contemporary art in London.&amp;quot; http://www.saatchi-gallery.co.uk/artists/wangechi_mutu.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nast &amp;agrave; Paris&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paris gallery for traditional and modern African art. Located between the Louvre Museum and the Place Vend&amp;#65533;me. http://nastaparis.free.fr&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	National Museum, Bloemfontein South Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has a Rock Art Department with a section on Public rock art sites of southern Africa&amp;#39;s central interior http://www.nasmus.co.za/ROCKART/ROCKART1.HTM&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	National Museums of Kenya&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contents include: Joy Adamson portraits of &amp;quot;Peoples of Kenya&amp;quot;, the various Galleries (mammal, fish/reptile, Lamu, ethnography, contemporary art, prehistory, botanical, family life education/family planning), information on the Kenya Museum Society, the Karen Blixen Museum. [KF] http://www.africaonline.co.ke/nmk/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ndlozy&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Mozambican sculptor. &amp;quot;In 1989 and 1991 he won respectively the 3rd and 1st prize at a competition for new talents organized by Horizonte Arte e Difus&amp;#65533;o.&amp;quot; http://www.ndlozy.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Newark Museum - Power Dressing: Men&amp;#39;s Fashion and Prestige in Africa, October 19 - January 22, 2006&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibit which &amp;quot;brings together fifty spectacular examples of male attire from across the continent, from Morocco to South Africa, representing over a century of fashion.&amp;quot; http://www.newarkmuseum.org/powerdressing/powerdressing.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nigeria-Arts.Net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Database of Nigerian artists, writers, musicians, dancers, comedians and other creative artists. Includes biographies, audio clips, contact information. From Rakumi Arts International, Seattle, Washington. http://www.nigeria-arts.net&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nike Centre for Art and Culture&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Founded by Nigerian batik artist, Nike Davies Okundaye, the Centre, supports endangered Nigerian arts, by training textile artists, painters, sculptors, dancers and drummers. Offers workshops in indigo dying and sculpting, painting and quilting, drumming and dancing and tours for overseas visitors. Video clips from &amp;quot;Adire: Indigo Textiles amongst the Yoruba&amp;quot; by Thorolf Lipp. The Woman With the Artistic Brush: A Life History of Yoruba Batik Artist Nike Davies, is a biography of Nike by Kim Marie Vaz. Has an e-mail list. Some art work on the site may be purchased. [KF] http://www.nikeart.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nka, Journal of Contemporary African Art (Ithaca, New York)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Founding publisher: Okwui Enwezor. Editors: Okwui Enwezor, Salah Hassan, Olu Oguibe. Has the table of contents. http://www.asrc.cornell.edu/nka/intro.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nok Museum of African Arts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The &amp;quot;Nok Museum&amp;quot; is a virtual museum only with an electronic collection of works held by other museums. Find art works by country, ethnic group. Download a slide show and screensaver. Maintained by Herv&amp;eacute; Gonay. Based in Paris, France. [KF] http://www.webzinemaker.net/africans-art/index.php3?action=page&amp;amp;id_art=387&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Norden [David] African Shop&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells masks, sculptures. Hosts a discussion list, African Antiques. Based in Antwerp, Belgium. http://users.pandora.be/african-shop/index.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Northwestern University. Communities Uniting to Confront HIV/AIDS in Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition of posters, dolls, pamphlets, tapestries, t-shirts used for HIV AIDS education. [KF] http://www.library.northwestern.edu/africana/aidsexhibit/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Nzalamba Art Works&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paul Nzalamba is a artist working in batiks who grew up in Uganda and now lives in the Los Angeles area. On-line gallery. Prints, lithographs, notecards can be purchased. http://www.nzalamba-artworks.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	October Gallery (London)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Represents contemporary African artists. Has Contemporary Art from West Africa - El Anatsui (from Ghana), Ablade Glover (Ghana), Emmanuel Taiwo Jegede (Nigeria), Twins Seven Seven (Nigeria), Chief Zacheus O. Oloruntoba (Nigeria), Tunde Odunlade (Nigeria). [KF] http://www.theoctobergallery.com/WestAfricaEx.htm http://www.octobergallery.co.uk/homepage.shtml&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Off the Main, Contemporary Art Exposition, October 7-10, 2004, New York City&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The first &amp;quot;art fair to exclusively showcase the paintings, sculputure, graphics and photography created by artists of African, Caribbean and Latin American ancestry.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Thirty-five exhibitors representing two hundred artists from twenty countries will participate....&amp;quot; Includes seminars, a benefit gala reception. http://www.artoffthemain.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Ogundipe] Moyo Ogundipe - Kaleidascopes&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Biography, exhibitions (Mami Wata: Arts for Water Spirits in Africa and Its Diasporas and others), gallery. See also Images from Google Images. Interview on Youtube. The artist received degrees from the Univ. of Ife and the Maryland Institute College of Art, Baltimore. http://newkaleidoscopes.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	O.L.A.T.S.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	L&amp;#39;Observatoire Leonardo des arts et des technosciences has Afrique Virtuelle, an online gallery of artists with biographies, contact information. Includes Namibian painter, Ndasuunje Joseph Shikongeni. [KF] http://www.olats.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Olevi Art and Culture&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wood carvings from Burundi. &amp;quot;We sell culturally-significant African art from lesser known cultures such as Burundi and Rwanda. We focus on art that will educate the buyer of the artist&amp;#39;s way of life. We believe if people can learn about others, they will understand and be more tolerant towards them.&amp;quot; The owner is Edouard S. Mutabazi, originally from Rwanda. Based in Conyers, Georgia. http://olevi.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Origins of Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells African masks, kuba cloth, furniture, etc. Has an e-mail list. Based in Boise, ID. http://www.originsofart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Origomundi Gallery for Tribal African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In German and English. &amp;quot;Many of our objects belong to the collection of the famous German ethnologist Boris Kegel-Konietzko (who is our official expert as well); most items have been collected a long time ago by him or his mother Lore directly in Africa. Of course we offer data protection, cancellation policy and return privilege.&amp;quot; The owners are Alexander Dorn &amp;amp; Christoph Erbsl&amp;ouml;h. Based in Hamburg, Germany. http://www.origomundi.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Osei Tutu&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wholesaler of crafts, drums, African shakers, walking sticks. Individuals need to buy on Ebay. http://oseitutu.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ouzman, Sven - &amp;quot;Prose has its Cons: Seeing beyond &amp;#39;material culture as text&amp;#39;&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Abstract and full text of the paper. &amp;quot;comparing rock art - a visual and theoretically informed artefact - with `graffiti&amp;rsquo; - a consummate embodiment of material culture as text.&amp;quot; Ouzman is a former Head of the Rock Art Department, National Museum, Bloemfontein, South Africa (1994-2002). Presented at Seeing the past: Building knowledge of the past and present through acts of seeing, Stanford Archaeology Centre, Stanford University, 5th &amp;ndash; 6th February 2005. Bibliography included. [KF] http://traumwerk.stanford.edu:3455/SeeingThePast/250&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Owusu-Ankomah&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ghanaian painter. Biography, artwork, exhibitions. The artist is working with Giorgio Armani on the RED project to raise funds for the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. The author&amp;#39;s publications are available from Artco. http://www.owusu-ankomah.de/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Pankhurst, Richard - Ethiopian History&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Many articles by Dr. Pankhurst originally published in the newspaper, Addis Tribune. Topics include Ethiopian crosses, art, manuscripts, Lalibala, the looted Aksum Obelisk, Ethiopian artists, early history of photography in Ethiopia, etc. http://www.abyssiniacybergateway.net/ethiopia/history/pankhurst.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Passport to Paradise: Visualizing Islam in West Africa and the Mouride Diaspora&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition on &amp;quot;the Mourides, a mystical Muslim movement originating in Senegal, West Africa.&amp;quot; Topics, illustrated by paintings and other media, include the rise of Islam, a biography of Amadu Bamba, the Mouride work ethic, Mouride women, the Mouride global networks, the saint&amp;#39;s tomb at Touba.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Also&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- the devotional sanctum of Serigne Faye with paintings by Assane Dione.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- a Mouride mosque and residential complex made entirely of straw&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	- followers of Sheikh Ibra Fall who are &amp;quot;apostles of hard work&amp;quot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A book and an educational program accompnay the exhibit organized by the Fowler Museum of Cultural History, University of California, Los Angeles.&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	For teachers there is a curriculum guide and online exhibition featuring biographies of the artists. http://www.fmch.ucla.edu/passporttoparadise.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Passport to Paradise: Sufi Arts of Senegal and Beyond&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The &amp;quot;urban visual culture of the Mourides, a Senegalese Sufi movement centered upon the life and teachings of a local saint named Sheikh Amadou Bamba.&amp;quot; Contemporary paintings, relief image, plaster plaque, glass painting, murals, details of the Great Mosque of Touba, murals by Papisto Boy of contemporary people (Che Guevara, Kwame Nkrumah, Thomas Sankara, George Bush [No. 41], Bill Clinton, Malcolm X, Osama bin Laden, Bob Marley, Pope John Paul II). From the African Online Digital Library, a project of Michigan State University, IFAN, and WARC. [KF] http://www.aodl.org/passport.php&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Power of Culture&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and Dutch. &amp;quot;Culture is an essential part of development cooperation.&amp;quot; Cultural news and articles - such as poetry festivals in Africa, Chinese cultural initiatives in Africa, Mozambique&amp;#39;s cultural policy, African film (and 15 best films, a lost Cape Verdean music tradition, the Tsikaya project to preserve Angolan rural music, Dutch support for South African arts. Cultural Calendar, Has a section on Art and Development. Directory of Dutch fund sources, museums. [KF] http://kvc.minbuza.nl/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Q2Studio - African Art, Nigerian Art and Black Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Contemporary art for sale, includes cartoon art, artist biographies. A free daily Nigerian cartoon. Founded by Sanya Ojikutu. http://www.q2studio.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Rand African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sculpture, Bamileke elephant masks,etc. Images show front, side, and back views. Site owner, Rand Smith, writes &amp;quot;I don&amp;#39;t own a gallery but you will see pieces of mine on eBay from time to time. I work in an engineering group for a telecommunications company in Denver.&amp;quot; [KF] http://www.randafricanart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Reece Sculpture Gallery (New York City)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibits Contemporary Master Stone Sculptors from Zimbabwe including: Tapfuma Gutsa, Nicholas Mukomberanwa, Henry Munyaradzi, Gedeon Nyanhongo, Lazarus Takawira, Gladman Zinyeka and others. http://reecegalleries.com/Reece_Sculpture_Gallery.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Revue Noire, African Contemporary Art (Paris)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Online site of the magazine. The table of contents of the magazine, in English or French, with a small sample of articles. Each issue focuses on art, photography, cinema, dance, theatre, or a geographic area. http://www.revuenoire.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Roy, Christopher D. - The Art of Burkina Faso&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;copy;2002. 116 p. Full text of a book by Roy, Professor of Art History, University of Iowa. Topics include: Demography, History, Mossi (Masks, Figures, Dolls, Zazaido crests), Gurunsi Masks, Bwa Masks, Bobo Masks, the Marka Dafing, Furniture, Pottery, Jewelry, Weaving, a cross-cultural comparative stylistic summary of mask styles, and a bibliography. http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/Art%20of%20Burkina%20Faso.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Roy, Christopher - DVDs&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Roy is Professor of Art History at the University of Iowa. Available from CustomFlix. http://www.customflix.com/ Information about DVDs on -&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Masks: Burkina Faso (masks from the Mossi, Bwa, Bobo, and Nuna (Gurunsi) peoples and of a 2002 mask festival) http://www.customflix.com/204747&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Pottery Techniques (Potters are from the Asante people of Ghana and the Mossi, Bwa, and Jelli peoples of Burkina Faso) http://www.customflix.com/204744&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Weaving (on the kente weavers of the Asante and Ewe people of Ghana, weavers in Burkina Faso) http://www.customflix.com/204752&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Roy, Christopher - Videos&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Thirteen videos (in Quicktime) of women in the market place, pounding millet, braiding hair, getting water from a town well, Mopti blacksmiths, boys playing with an innertube, Bobo and Bwa mask dances (Burkina Faso), etc. To hear the audio, requires a sound card and speakers / or headset. Christopher Roy is Professor of Art &amp;amp; Art History, University of Iowa. [KF] http://www.uiowa.edu/%7Eafricart/streamingmovies/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Royal Museum for Central Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Museum in Turvuren, Belgium. Has basic information, lists their publications. [KF] http://www.africamuseum.be/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sadia (alias Aly K&amp;#65533;b&amp;#65533;)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Art exhibition, &amp;quot;le cri d&amp;#39;un continent,&amp;quot; held dec 2001 / janv 2002 at the Galerie nationale d&amp;#39;Art in Dakar. Interview with the artist, Sadia, photos of his work. Hosted on the site of Amadou Thiam, a former Senegalese Senator for overseas Senegalese. http://www.touba.com/ar/page_sadia/artiste.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Saint Lawrence University - African Arts: Into the Next Millenium&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;For the academic year 1999-2000 St. Lawrence University (Canton, NY) is sponsoring a program that will illuminate and celebrate....achievements in African arts.&amp;quot; Featured lecturers are Ulli Beier, Okwui Enwezor, Chinua Achebe, and Wole Soyinka. The university gallery will exhibit textiles and the work of Ada Udechukwu. [KF] http://it.stlawu.edu/~art/aafestival/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Samba, Cheri - Congonline&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Article, examples of art work. &amp;quot;Le site Internet Congonline est une r&amp;#65533;alisation de l&amp;#39;ASBL Afriqu&amp;#39;Info,&amp;quot; Bruxelles. http://www.congonline.com/Peinture/cheri.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Samba, Cheri - Galerie Peter Herrmann&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In German. Graphics of artwork, many for sale, of the Congolese artist. Includes a biography. From the Galerie Peter Herrmann, Stuttgart, Germany. http://www.galerie-herrmann.de/arts/samba/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Samba, Cheri - Lacanian Ink&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Article / interview (with paintings) with Cheri Samba by Josefina Ayerza. In Lacanian Ink, a biannual print journal, published in New York City. http://www.lacan.com/frameI8.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	San Francisco, Fine Arts Museums of&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco (the de Young Museum and the Legion of Honor) have a searchable database of their collection. Retrieve images on any country from the Image Database; see the search box, bottom of the page. Click on each image several times and each time it enlarges. The De Young Museum has an African art collection and a Teachers&amp;#39; Guide to African Art. [KF] http://www.thinker.org/fam/thinker.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Season South Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;... Season South Africa, a visual and performing arts program, is being presented by the Museum for African Art and the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in New York that will challenge general perceptions of South African art practice and performance.&amp;quot; Includes the exhibition, Personal Affects at the Museum for African Art, Queens, New York, September 23, 2004 - January 3, 2005. http://www.seasonsouthafrica.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Seve] Robert Seve. L&amp;#39;Afrique de C-M BIAZIN. Films sur l&amp;#39;Art / Cin&amp;eacute;ma Exp&amp;eacute;rimental&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French and English. Seve has promoted the work of Central African painter, Cl&amp;eacute;ment-Marie BIAZIN (1924-1981). Documents, photographs on Biazin and his work. Based in Paris, France. [KF] http://www.robert-seve.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Shonibare, Yinka&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	London-born artist. &amp;quot;paintings combine emulsion, acrylic, found objects and textiles and explore his interest in aesthetic and post-colonial issues. The textiles used in the works first became popular in West Africa after independence for being constructed as an &amp;quot;African&amp;quot; cloth.&amp;quot; On the web site of Stephen Friedman Gallery, London. http://www.stephenfriedman.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Short Century Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa, 1945-1994&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;landmark exhibition exploring African culture through art, film, photography, graphics, architecture, music, literature, and theater.&amp;quot; The Haus der Kulturen der Welt, (House of World Cultures) co-sponsored the May 18 - July 29, 2001 exhibit in Berlin. Curated by Okwui Enwezor now at the San Francisco Art Institute. http://archiv.hkw.de/deutsch/kultur/2001/tsc/shortcentury_e.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Book for the exhibit -&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The short century : independence and liberation movements in Africa, 1945-1994 / edited by Okwui Enwezor ; with essays by Chinua Achebe ... [et al.]. (Munich ; New York : Prestel, c2001.) 496 p. : ill. (some col.) ; 30 cm. Notes: Catalog of an exhibition organized by the Museum Villa Stuck, Munich.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Short Century Independence and Liberation Movements in Africa, 1945-1994&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	PBS Online News Hour program about the P.S. 1 Contemporary Art Center in New York exhibit. Interview with Curator, Okwui Enwezor (&amp;quot;the Africa of the imagination&amp;quot;, and &amp;quot;the interactions between Africa and Europe during the latter half of the 20th Century; the correlation between art and politics, and the use of art as a political tool; the changing art world, and the exhibit as a history lesson.&amp;quot;) Listen to the original broadcast (requires sound card, headset or speakers). Works from the exhibit. http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/jan-june02/short_century/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Silverman, Raymond A. - Ethiopia: Traditions of Creativity. 1998&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Autobiographies of artists, photographs of their art work (jewelry, baskety, paintings, pottery, sorghum models, woodwork, textiles), bibliographies&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The site, by Prof. Silverman, is based on an art exhibit for the 12th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies, 1994. Has links to Ethiopian art, food, literature, language, and other sites. [KF] http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~etoc&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Silverman, Raymond A. - Zerihun Yetmgeta: Ethiopian Artist&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Biography of Zerihun Yetmgeta, artist&amp;#39;s exhibit history, bibliography, an essay by Esseye Medhin, examples of the artist&amp;#39;s work from 1965 to the present. Site completed 1 Jaunary 1999. Maintained by Dr. Raymond A. Silverman, Art Dept., Michigan State Univ.[KF] http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~zerihun/index2.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sithole, Lucas - South African Sculptor, 1931-1994&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site shows over 65 sculptures, mainly in wood, from private, corporate, public and museum collections around the world, of particular interest for projected museum exhibitions. Follow the &amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;gt; Has auction prices. Presented by The Haenggi Foundation Inc., Johannesburg and Basel, Switzerland. http://www.sithole.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Skoto Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;established in 1992 as a space where some of the best works by African artists can be exhibited within the context of a diverse and totalized audience. As one of the first galleries specializing in contemporary African Art in New York City, it has been instrumental in the progression of this rapidly growing field.&amp;quot; http://www.skotogallery.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Museum site provides a calendar of events, the Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives, annotated color photos from their exhibits accessed through a clickable map of the museum, descriptions of museum programs, staff list, the library. http://www.si.edu/nmafa/africart.htm [KF]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - African Vision: The Walt Disney-Tishman African Art Collection&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Collection of Paul and Ruth Tishman who sold the collection to the Walt Disney Company in 1984. &amp;quot;Donated to the museum in 2005, the Walt Disney-Tishman collection is known for its unique and rare works of traditional African art from throughout sub-Saharan Africa.&amp;quot; The exhibit displayed 88 of the over 500 objects. http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/africanvision/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Ethiopian Icons: Faith and Science&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	This &amp;quot;exhibition focuses on the icon, an art form associated with the Ethiopian Orthodox church.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;Church patrons commissioned artist-priests to create icons in the form of single panels, diptychs and triptychs to donate to the church.&amp;quot; Includes images of crosses and details on conservation methods. Identifies and documents the materials used to paint Ethiopian icons. http://www.nmafa.si.edu/exhibits/icons/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Gifts and Blessings. Textile Arts of Madagascar&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Very attractive site. &amp;quot;The Malagasy exchange cloth to demonstrate ethnic identity, status and ties of mutual respect and loyalty.&amp;quot; Background / history of cloth, photographs, artists&amp;#39; profiles, royalty and diplomatic gifts, role of cloth in funeral customs. Activity pages help students learn about the music, language, and geography of Madagascar. http://www.nmafa.si.edu/exhibits/malagasy/index.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	A catalog of the exhibit has been published: Gifts &amp;amp; blessings textile arts of Madagascar. Author: National Museum of African Art (U.S.) [Washington, D.C. : National Museum of African Art,] 2002.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Insights: Selected Artists from the Contemporary Collection&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition Feb. 27 - Nov. 28, 2004 of works by Sokari Douglas Camp, William Kentridge, Jeremy Wafer, Zwelethu Mthethwa, Georgia Papageorge, Ezrom Legae, Iba N&amp;#39;Diaye, Gavin Jantjes, Sue Williamson. Bibliography (articles, books, web sites). Based in Washington, DC. [KF] http://www.nmafa.si.edu/exhibits/insights/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Ivory: Identification and Regulation of a Precious Material&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	By Stephanie Hornbeck, with contributions from Jessica Levin Martinez. Artistic and conservation issues. Many photographs. &amp;quot;how to identify elephant ivory and its substitutes, descriptions of the laws and regulations of its trade&amp;quot; Bibliography and related web sites. 10 pages in PDF. http://africa.si.edu/research/ivory.pdf&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution Libraries. National Museum of African Art. Library - Warren M. Robbins Library&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Library online catalog is a great resource as; unlike most library catalogs, it includes citations to journal articles. &amp;quot;Modern African Art: a Basic Reading List&amp;quot; by Janet L. Stanley is an internet version (with extensive annotations) of a bibliography originally compiled in 1990 and is continually updated. The Museum provides a database of African art sites and holds the Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives. http://africa.si.edu/research/library.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Mali Empire and Djenne Figures&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has photos of two terracotta figures, a short history, map, timeline, suggested classroom activities, readings, links to further web resources. http://www.nmafa.si.edu/educ/mali/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of African Art - Mami Wata: Arts for Water Spirits in Africa and Its Diaspora&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	April 1 - July 26, 2009 exhibition produced by the Fowler Museum, UCLA. http://africa.si.edu/exhibits/mamiwata/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	See also the New York Times Art Review, by Holland Carter, &amp;quot;&amp;#39;Mami Wata&amp;#39; From the Deep, a Diva With Many Faces&amp;quot; April 2, 2009. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/03/arts/design/03wata.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Smithsonian Institution. National Museum of Natural History - African Voices&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site for a permanent exhibit at the Museum in Washington, D.C. Attractive site featuring master sculptors (Lamidi Fakeye), an interactive timeline, society, metalworking, clay pottery and a master potter, an annotated bibliography. Uses Flash software. [KF] http://www.mnh.si.edu/africanvoices/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Social Fabric. Exploring the Kate Peck Kent Collection of West African Textiles&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	From the University of Denver Museum of Anthropology. Shows Adinkra and Adire Cloth and Strip Weaving from Ghana and Nigeria. Explains the different roles/functions cloth takes. Has field notes from Kate Kent (former anthropology professor), bibliographies, glossaries. Links to other African textile sites. http://www.du.edu/duma/africloth&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sothebys - African &amp;amp; Oceanic Art on Auction&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Select Ancient &amp;amp; Ethnographic Art, then African &amp;amp; Oceanic Art. For each item includes photograph, description, provenance, where exhibited. One can purchase auction catalogs online or bid online for art works (requires username &amp;amp; password). http://www.sothebys.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Soudasworld Inc.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Soudasworld,Inc. is a Boston, Massachusetts based Fine Art company created by West-African female artist Souda Traore Boyd. Her contemporary hybrid style (African and western) includes paintings (watercolor,oil and sand), drawings (ink,crayon and pencil) and clay sculptures.&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.soudasworld.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Southern University at New Orleans (SUNO) - African Art Project&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site describes the project of the Center for African and African American Studies to produce a catalog of the African art (over 900 pieces) held by the Center. Over half of the collection is from the Bertrand Collection on the art and culture of Zaire. Dr. Sara Hollis is Curator of the art collection; Dr. Terrance Lewis is electronic advisor for the web site. [KF] http://www.gnofn.org/~zaire&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sowunmi, Olumide - Invisible Mask&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;In my thesis the focus is on masks of West African origin, and further exploration of the masking tradition in African culture. The objective is to view the masquerade from a postmodern perspective, and incorporate modern computer technology in preserving this ancient art form.&amp;quot; Sowunmi uses the computer as a &amp;quot;medium of artistic expression, through three dimensional modeling and animation.&amp;quot; [KF] http://www.tutu-inc.com/thesis/cover.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stanford University. Cantor Center for Visual Arts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Cantor is the home of Stanford University&amp;#39;s African art collection. The Center Director is Thomas K. Seligman. Upcoming: August 4, 2010 &amp;ndash; January 2, 2011, Mami Wata: Arts for Water Spirits in Africa and Its Diasporas. [KF] http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUMA/africa.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stanford University. Cantor Arts Center - Art as Agency in Central Africa, Feb. 18, 2005&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site has closed. http://ccva.stanford.edu/franklinsymposium05.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stanford Univesity. Cantor Arts Center - Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World, May 30 - September 2, 2007&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibition and symposium (June 2, 2007). See articles on the exhibit and the work of Thomas Seligman in Stanford Magazine, May/June 2007 (includes photographs) and in Stanford Report, May 23, 2007. http://museum.stanford.edu/news_room/Tuareg.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stanford University - &amp;quot;Hair in African Art and Culture, October 4 - December 31, 2000&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site has closed. Was an exhibit at the Cantor Center for Visual Arts. The exhibit was organized by The Museum for African Art in New York and curated by Dr. Roy Sieber. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/SUMA/hairpress.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Stanley, Janet, Modern African Art: a Basic Reading List&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	An annotated bibliography, with analysis and comments, on recent publications and exhibition catalogs as well as popular and scholarly periodicals. The list is continually updated. Stanley is Librarian of the National Museum of African Art (Smithsonian Institution). http://www.sil.si.edu/SILPublications/ModernAfricanArt/newmaa.cfm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Stolhofer] Christine Stolhofer&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and German. Austrian born sculptor in wood. Works and exhibits in Zimbabwe, Botswana and other locations. http://bushmemoryart.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sudan Archaeological Society in Berlin/ Die Sudan-archaologische Gesellschaft zu Berlin E.V.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Based at Humboldt-Universitat, describes their projects, has the table of contents of its bulletin, photographs of wall paintings, temples, links to other Sudan archaeology web sites, and an annotated bibliography of publications on the Sudan. http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sudan/SAG/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sudan Artists Gallery&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Showcase for painters, graphic artists, sculptors, illustrators, with biographical information, examples of their work. Maintained by Iman Shaggag. http://www.sudanartists.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sujaro African and World Imports&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells masks, sculptures, textiles, beaded chairs, baskets, belts, chairs, house decor, from over 30 African countries. Provides assistance to the Biko Foundation, the Amos Trust, and the African Wildlife Foundation. The owner, Andrew Berz, has galleries in San Francisco, California and Half Moon Bay, California. [KF] http://www.sujaro.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Taiwo, Damola - African Paintings / Prints&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Page of a Nigerian painter / graphic artist living in Chicago, Illinois. The geocities site will produce ads. http://www.geocities.com/DTEC84/DSTAFRICA2&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tamarin - Art and Africa On Line&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Site, in French and English, of Tamarin Art Inc. Long Beach, New York. Exhibits include:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kongo Arts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Zimbabwe Sculptors&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Kings of Africa - Photographs of reigning African traditional rulers by Daniel Lain&amp;#65533;, with biographies for each ruler. From the book by Lain&amp;#65533;, Rois d&amp;#39;Afrique (Paris: Arthaud, 1991, 156 p.).&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Fode Camara - Senegalese contemporary painter&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gallery - a selection of African art and ethnographic objects&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Biographical and background information on each artist and their work and bibliographies. Some exhibition items are for sale. http://www.tamarin.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tanka, Emmanuel F.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features the art and music (with audio clips) of a Cameroon artist and musician based in Vancouver, Canada. Tanka offers workshops in African Folk Music and World Jazz to schools. Plans are for an online publication with essays, reviews, etc. http://www.intergate.ca/cwjefmusic&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Taxi Art Books (Johannesburg, South Africa)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Book series on contemporary South African artists (Jo Ractliffe, Samson Mudzunga, Jeremy Wafer, Santu Mofokeng), initiated by the French Institute of South Africa (IFAS) and published by David Krut Publishing, Johannesburg. Each title is published with a TaXi Art Educational Supplement designed for high schools. Has artists&amp;#39; biographies, extracts of text and images from the books. Its Arts Resources describes the Michaelis Art Library, a specialist library within the Greater Johannesburg Metropolitan Library. http://www.taxiartbooks.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tema Tribal Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sells sculpture from West, Central, East Africa. Founded by the owner Ian Shaw. Based in Glasgow, Scotland, U.K. http://www.tematribalart.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Textiles of Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	For sale from SUJARO Gallery of African Art, San Francisco, California. From the Congo - barkcloth, Kuba cloth, Kuba skirts. From Mali - Bogolan mud cloth. http://www.textilesofafrica.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Toure] Aida Toure - Paintings by Sufi poet Aida Toure&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Gabonese/Malian author Aida Toure&amp;#39;s abstract art inspired by her Sufi poetry. http://www.aidatoure.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tribal African Art - Olivier Silva&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Web-based discussion, information on African art auctions. Part of the Yahoo Clubs. Maintained by Olivier Silva, art collector and consultant based in Tokyo. http://clubs.yahoo.com/clubs/africantribalart&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tribal Arts (San Francisco, California)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Online Journal of Art, Culture and History of Traditional People&amp;quot;, the net edition of the print magazine, The World of Tribal Arts (San Francisco) which covers Africa, Oceania, the Americas and Asia. Has a calendar of exhibits in North America and Europe, reports on auction prices for African art, critical book reviews, discussion page. [KF] http://www.tribalarts.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Tribalphoto.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;...supports tribal survival, the defense of human rights and cultural autonomy of indigenous people&amp;quot; Has &amp;quot;photographers...who want to offer their work in support of tribal survival. Reproduction of our images is available - at a minimal charge - to all those whose intent is to present positive support for cultural survival.&amp;quot; Photos are from Ethiopia, Namibia, Niger, the Sahel. Photographers include John Watson. Has a list of &amp;quot;culturally sensitive tours.&amp;quot; http://www.tribalphoto.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Tshibumba Kanda Matulu] The history of Zaire as told and painted by Tshibumba Kanda Matulu in conversation with Johannes Fabian&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;Several painters began to represent sequences of historical events, foremost among them Tshibumba Kanda Matulu who thought of himself as a historian and was able to realize, in 1973-74, a project he had been dreaming of: A complete History of Zaire in one hundred pictures and a narrative. From Archives of Popular Swahili, Volume 2, Issue 1 (6 November 1998) on the web site, Language and Popular Culture in Africa, an internet project set up by Johannes Fabian and Vincent de Rooij of the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Amsterdam. http://www.pscw.uva.nl/lpca/aps/tshibumbaintro.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Turner, Glen] Africa Talks.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;an online and face-to-face community of people interested in development in Africa.&amp;quot; Features the art work of Glenn Turner. http://www.AfricaTalks.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Twiga Gallery and Design (San Francisco, CA)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;African textiles, sculptures, jewelry, pottery, paintings, furniture, antiques, accents and accessories for the home.&amp;quot; Unique, one of a kind jewelry. Gallery, in San Francisco, owned by Twiga Mbunda. http://www.twigagallery.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ulonka - Barthosa Nkurumeh&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features the work (acrylics, linocuts) of Barthosa Nkurumeh an artist and art educator who &amp;quot;received his formal art training at the University of Nigeria, synonymous with the Uli style....&amp;quot; Pages with large graphics take a while to load. [KF] http://afropoets.tripod.com/ulonka&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	UNESCO - Histoire g&amp;eacute;n&amp;eacute;rale de l&amp;rsquo;Afrique&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In French. Published by UNESCO. In 8 volumes, with over 300 authors. Has the table of contents. http://www.unesco.org/culture/africa/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has full text chapters from some volumes:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	From Volume Seven&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chapitre 21 : Les arts en Afrique &amp;agrave; l &amp;eacute;poque de la domination coloniale, by W. SOYINKA&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	From Volume Eight&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chapitre 19: Le d&amp;eacute;veloppement de la litt&amp;eacute;rature moderne, by A. A. MAZRUI, avec la collaboration de M. DE ANDRADE, M. A. ABDALOUI, D. P. KUNENE et J. VANSINA&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Chapitre 20: Les arts et la soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; depuis 1935, by J. VANSINA&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	UNESCO. Memory of Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	UNESCO&amp;#39;s &amp;nbsp;presents its la M&amp;#65533;moire virtuelle du Monde / Virtual Memory of the World program for the preservation of archival and library holdings world-wide. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; http://www.unesco.org/webworld/africa/africa.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Cartes Postales d&amp;#39;Afrique - Historical postcards from Cote d&amp;#39;Ivoire and Benin. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/mdm/visite/cartpafr/fr/present1.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Eritrea: Ancient Manuscripts - with beautiful illustrations of manuscripts. http://www.unesco.org/webworld/africa/eritree2.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Cameroon: Masks and Statues - http://www.unesco.org/webworld/africa/cameroon.htm&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	UNESCO World Heritage Site - Kondoa Rock Art Sites&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Rock shelters with a &amp;quot;spectacular collection of images&amp;quot; Dodoma Region, Tanzania. The evaluation report (19 p. in PDF) includes a history, bibliography, photographs, map. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1183&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of California, Berkeley. Phoebe A. Hearst Museum of Anthropology&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Extensive collections from Africa and Ancient Egypt. See also the Center for the Tebtunis Papyri (papyri from Egypt). http://hearstmuseum.berkeley.edu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of California. Fowler Museum of Cultural History&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Exhibits the arts especially of Africa, Asia, Oceania, Native and Latin America. Has fine photographs of African art and publications on African art. Past exhibits included African dolls, Yoruba beads. [KF] http://www.fmch.ucla.edu/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of Central Oklahoma. African Art Collection (Edmond, Oklahoma)&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Art objects are from Western Africa, Nigeria, and Central Africa. http://www.libarts.ucok.edu/visual/african_web/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of Iowa Libraries. Center for Electronic Resources in African Studies&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Includes:&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Iowa Studies in African Art: The Stanley Conferences at the University of Iowa (1985) - Has full text of the Introduction by Christopher Roy and the keynote address by Arnold Rubin, &amp;quot;Artists and Workshops in Northeastern Nigeria&amp;quot;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Iron, Master of Them All (1993) by William J. Dewey and Allen F. Roberts&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Baobab: A Publication Dedicated to the Study of African Expressive Culture (1997). [KF] http://sdrc.lib.uiowa.edu/african-studies/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of Kansas. Virtual Tour of the African Collection&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;quot;produced by beginning students of African art history at the University of Kansas...represents their term projects for....courses on African art history conducted by Gitti Salami.&amp;quot; &amp;quot;photographs of African artworks, surround views of them, condition reports, detailed descriptions, contextual information, donor information, geographic maps, sound samples, video clips and field research photographs&amp;quot; Rotate objects left or right, zoom in. http://www.arcc.ku.edu/website%20homepage.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of Nigeria, Nsukka Art School&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The Nsukka Art School is in the Department of Fine and Applied Arts. http://www.nsukkaartschool.info/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	University of Virginia, Bayly Art Museum, African Art Exhibit&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	African Art: Aesthetics and Meaning, An Electronic Exhibition Catalog includes graphics of West African and Tanzania masks, headdresses, statuettes, etc. Includes chi-wara headdresses, ibeji twin figures. http://www.lib.virginia.edu/clemons/RMC/exhib/93.ray.aa/African.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Venice Biennale&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In Italian and English. In 2007 Malick Sidib&amp;eacute; (Mali, 1936) was awarded the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at the 52nd International Art Exhibition, he will be &amp;quot;the first African artist so honored.&amp;quot; http://www.labiennale.org&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	The 2007 biennale has an African Pavilion - Check List Luanda Pop, featuring the Sindika Dokolo African Collection of Contemporary Art. Articles from Artnet News (New York), May 18, 2007 and Feb. 23, 2007.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ventura, Dr. Carol, Associate Professor of Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photographs and information on African crafts and literature in Cameroon, bronze casting, batik, bark pictures, masks, beadwork, wood carving, the African Arts/Handicraft and Environmental Management Institute Museum in Cameroon. Dr. Ventura teaches at Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville,Tennessee. http://iweb.tntech.edu/cventura/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Visona, Monica Blackmun, et. al. - History of Art in Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Authors are Monica Blackmun Visona, Robin Poynor, Herbert M. Cole, Michael D. Harris, Rowland Abiodun, and Suzanne Peterson Blier. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001. 544 p. Examination copies available. There is an Instructor&amp;#39;s Manual. Book sponsored by the Arts Council of the African Studies Association (U.S.) [KF] http://vig.prenhall.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Virtual Museum of Contemporary African Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Paintings, sculpture, experimental films, articles, bulletin board, directory of African art web sites. Home of the online Review of African Contemporary Art. The Review contains exhibit news, a who&amp;#39;s who in the Netherlands in contemporary African art, art news. Site from the AfricaServer Foundation, Amsterdam, Director - Fons Geerlings. http://www.vmcaa.com&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Visual Arts of Zimbabwe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Features architecture (Great Zimbabwe, colonial era), sculpture, rock paintings, contemporary paintings. http://landow.stg.brown.edu/post/zimbabwe/art/zartov.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Sculpture in Zimbabwe&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has a &amp;quot;History of Contemporary Stone Sculpture in Zimbabwe&amp;quot; by George P. Landow, Professor of English and Art History, Brown University, plus biographies and photographs of the artists and their work.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;#65533;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Part of the Literature and Culture of Zimbabwe site, which is part of the Contemporary Postcolonial &amp;amp; Postimperial Literature in English site maintained by George P. Landow, Professor of English and Art History, Brown University.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wahlman, Dr. Maude Southwell&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Dr. Wahlman, the Dorothy and Dale Thompson/Missouri Endowed Professor of Global Arts, Department of Art and Art History, University of Missouri-Kansas City, Kansas City, MO has a site with her syllabus, exhibits of African beadwork, African charms, African art from many areas&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://iml.umkc.edu/art/faculty/wahlman/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	West African Museums Program, WAMP&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English and French. Promotes / develops West African museums and cultural institutions. Publishes monographs, the WAMP Bulletin. Has a directory of museums in West Africa (see under Partners), links to Africa-related museum sites. Based in Dakar, Senegal. http://www.wamponline.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	West African Wisdom: Adinkra Symbols &amp;amp; Meanings&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	High quality adinkra symbols with their meanings. Larger versions of the symbols can be supplied on request. Includes adinkra Valentine cards, an annotated list of books (plus books for children) and adinkra related sites. Created by Jean MacDonald of Well-Tempered Web Design in Portland, Oregon, a volunteer to Ghana with Geekcorps. http://www.welltempered.net/adinkra&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Witcombe, Chris - Gateway to Art History&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Links to African art sites by Professor Witcombe, Department of Art History, Sweet Briar College (Virginia, USA). Includes a link to Prof. Lisa Aronson&amp;#39;s (Skidmore College) African art history site. http://www.harbrace.com/art/gardner/NonEuro.html#Africa&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Women Warriors: Cultural Guardians of the Ndebele&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photographs of Ndebele women, their mural paintings, beadwork, etc. On the site of Home Girl, Inc. created by Adrienne Hoard. Based in Jefferson City, Missouri. http://www.homegirlinc.com/women-warriors.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	World Monuments Fund&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Has lists of Endangered Sites including &amp;quot;imperiled cultural heritage sites&amp;quot; in Africa. Has a few field projects in Africa but most are in Europe. Has given grants to some African sites. Nominate a site. Based in New York City. http://www.worldmonuments.org/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	World Cup 2010 South Africa - Art&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	World Cup 2010 Official Art Poster Edition - Limited edition set of 17 prints by artists. Signed and numbered prints can be purchased individually or in a set. A set is Euro 2490 (c. $3,000 plus). Artists: William Kentridge, Charles Fazzino, Hassan Musa, Cameron Platter, Barth&amp;#65533;l&amp;#65533;my Toguo, Isolde Krams, Marlene Dumas, Kay Hassan, Soly Ciss&amp;#65533;, Peter Eastman, Romero Britto, Lilanga Art, Kendell Geers, Robert Slingsby, Zhong Biao, Yamaguchi Akira, Julie Mehretu. http://brandsunitedug.sport.officelive.com/&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	2010 FineArt - 160 artists world wide. &amp;quot;a visual celebration of the world&amp;#39;s most-watched sporting event.... It is the first time in the 80-year history of the FIFA World Cup&amp;#65533; that fine art on this scale has been recognised as Official Licensed Products by FIFA&amp;quot; http://www.2010fineart.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	ESPN 2010 FIFA World Cup Murals&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Page One, Page Two. 33 murals by South African artists from the Am I Collective studio, one for each team and one overall World Cup mural. THe posters are in the style of Ghanaian movie posters from the 1980s. http://www.facebook.com/album.php?aid=178678&amp;amp;id=161531382040&amp;amp;page=2&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Also Vanity Fair article, May 16, 2010, article May 24, 2010 by Herman Manson on Marklives.com, and on Worldcupbuzz.com.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	World Festival of Black Arts and Cultures - Festival Mondial des Arts N&amp;egrave;gres, December 10-31, 2010, Dakar, Senegal&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	In English, French, Portuguese. Third World Festival. The first World Festival was held in Dakar in 1966. The second Festival was held in 1977 in Nigeria. Sponsored by the African Union. History &amp;amp; video. Brazil is the guest of honour. http://blackworldfestival.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	[Wosene] Kosrof, Wosene Worke&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ethiopian painter based in Berkeley, California. Biography. Bibliography. Exhibitions. http://www.wosene.com/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Spirits in Stone (Glen Ellen, California) - Some of the paintings shown may be purchased. http://spiritsinstone.com/wosene/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	&amp;nbsp;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Words: from Spoken to Seen - The Art of Wosene Worke Kosrof. Curated by Dr. B&amp;aacute;rbaro Mart&amp;iacute;nez-Ruiz and Dr. Allyson Purpurya. Location: Mexican Heritage Plaza, San Jose, California. Exhibition Dates: April 21 - June 30 2006. http://www.mhcviva.org/events/detail/2006-04-21-wosene.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wube, Ezra - Ethiopian Artist&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Wube&amp;#39;s paintings reflect Ethiopia&amp;#39;s traditions. The Ethiopian Story Collection Project will collect folklore throughout Ethiopia (see the video clip) and present selected stories in multimedia shorts. [KF] http://www.ezraart.net/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Yale University. Art Gallery - African Collection&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Photographs of the collection. History of the collection. Interview with Curator Frederick Lamp. http://artgallery.yale.edu/pages/collection/permanent/pc_african.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Yoruba Art and Akan Goldweights, Cutting to the Essence, Shaping for the Fire&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	On-line catalog of an exhibit of Yoruba art and Akan goldweights held at the Lakeview Museum, Peoria, Illinois in 1994. Includes an essay and bibliography.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	http://www.fa.indiana.edu/~conner/africart/home.html&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Yoruba Potters: Mothers and Daughters&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	One page on a video by Ron Du Bois, on women pottery artists, showing the &amp;quot;entire process from working the clay to the dramatic &amp;quot;open field&amp;quot; firing of more than 1,000 pots, including koko amu - huge, perfectly symmetrical water vessels made without a potter&amp;#39;s wheel. The women and girls, ages 5 to 65, work at their profession from dawn to dusk, year-round.&amp;quot; http://www.angelfire.com/ok2/dubois/&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Zerihun Yetmgeta&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;	Ethiopian painter. Biography, photographs of his paintings, bibliography of articles / books, essay (Zerihun Yetmgeta: An Ethiopian Modernist by Esseye Medhin.) Site by Raymond A. Silverman. http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~zerihun/.&lt;/div&gt;</description>
         <pubDate>Mon, 29 Aug 2011 09:44:25 GMT</pubDate>
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