The Authenticity of African Sculptures

by Henri Kamer

The issue of authenticity of African art has been central to collectors for decades.  Henri Kamer, who was president of the International Arts Experts Association at the time, published an outstanding account of the state of the matter in Artes d'Afrique Noire, No. 12 (1974).  The text  that follows is extracted from an English translation of that article, and has been edited further.  The original includes a number of illustrations.  They are not included here because I believe the text suffices without them. 

The original version, including the illustrations, in French and with the English translation, is 

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Notes succinctes sur les masques kalengula des Luntu et des peuples voisins (R.D.C.)
(première partie)
Constantin PETRIDIS (1) in Arts d'Afrique Noire arts premiers Automne 2000 N° 115
Au sein de la littérature sur les masques de l'Afrique subsaharienne, ce sont surtout les masques en bois sculpté qui ont retenu l'attention des chercheurs. Les publications sur le bassin du Congo n'ont pas fait exception à cette règle. Ainsi, le catalogue d'exposition 'Face of the Spirits', publié en 1993 à l'occasion d'une exposition du même nom à l'Etnografisch Museum d'Anvers, ne montre, sur un total de cent treize masques, que cinq exemplaires en fibres tressées (2). La rareté de ces objets dans les collections occidentales est due, entre autres, au fait que les matières utilisées résistent mal au transport et aux changements climatiques. Il faut sans doute également voir dans cette lacune une explication d'ordre esthétique. En effet, les premiers collectionneurs d'art africain, se laissant guider par des idéaux occidentaux, ne prenaient en considération que des matières jugées nobles telles le bois, les métaux ou l'ivoire. Pourtant, hormis des masques en bois sculpté, plusieurs peuples du bassin du Congo ont produit des couvre-chefs et couvre-visages en fibres et autres matières plus éphémères. Or, bien qu'ils soient occasionnellement mentionnés dans des publications spécialisées, les études approfondies les concernant font aujourd'hui toujours défaut (3).
En vertu de ce constat, il nous a semblé pertinent de nous pencher sur l'étude d'un type de masque nommé kalengula qui, malgré une

Full text, digitalised by Lies Strijker and presented by the .Centre Aequatoria
Notes on the digitalisation and presentation


[Cover]

[1: empty]

[2]
IMPRIMI POTEST
Kanzenze, 12-2-1952
P. Simeon, o.m.f.
Sup. Reg.

IMPRIMATUR
Luabo-Kamina, 30-5-1952
+VICTOR PETRUS KEUPPENS
Vic. Ap. de Lulua


[3]

(Translated into English from "La Philosophie Bantoue" the French Version by Dr. A. Rubbens of Fr. Tempels' original work. The Revd. Colin King, M.A. Translator.)

With a Foreword to the English Edition by Dr Margaret Read, C.B.E.Ph. D.,M.A., formerly Professor of Education and Head of the Department Of Education in Tropical Areas, The

Masks

The viewing of masks is often restricted to certain peoples or places, even when used in performance, or masquerade. African masks manifest spirits of ancestors or nature as well as characters that are spiritual and social forces. During a masquerade, which is performed during ceremonial occasions such as agricultural, initiation, leadership and funerary rites, the mask becomes the otherworld being. When collected by Western cultures, masks are often displayed without their costume ensemble and lack the words, music and movement, or dance, that are integral to the context of African masquerades. Visually, masks are often a combination of human and animal traits. They can be made of wood, natural or man-made fibers, cloth and animal skin. Masks are usually worn with costumes and can, to some extent, be categorized by form, which includes face masks, crest masks, cap masks, helmet masks, shoulder masks, and fiber and body masks. Maskettes, which are shaped like masks, are smaller and are not worn on or over the face. They may be worn on an individual’s arm or hip or hung on a fence or other structure near the performance area.

Sculpture

The cultures of Africa have created a world-renowned tradition of three-dimensional and relief sculpture. Everyday and ceremonial works of great delicacy and surface detail are fashioned by artists using carving, modeling, smithing and casting techniques. Masks, figures, musical instruments, containers, furniture, tools and equipment are all part of the sculptor’s repertoire. The human figure is perhaps the most prominent sculptural form in Africa, as it has been for millennia. Male and female images in wood, ivory, bone, stone, earth, fired clay, iron and copper alloy embody cultural values, depict the ideal and represent spirits, ancestors and deities. Used in a broad range of contexts--initiation, healing, divination,

At once beautiful, protective, seductive, and dangerous, the water spirit Mami Wata (Mother Water) is celebrated throughout much of Africa and the African Atlantic. A rich array of arts surrounds her, as well as a host of other aquatic spirits--all honoring the essential, sacred nature of water. Mami Wata is often portrayed as a mermaid, a snake charmer, or a combination of both. She is widely believed to have "overseas" origins, and her depictions have been profoundly influenced by representations of ancient, indigenous African water spirits, European mermaids, Hindu gods and goddesses, and Christian and Muslim saints. She is not only sexy, jealous, and beguiling but also exists in the plural, as the mami watas and papi watas who comprise part of the vast and uncountable "school" of African water spirits.

Mami Wata's presence is pervasive partly because she can bring good fortune in the form of money. As a "capitalist" deity par excellence, her persona developed between the fifteenth and twentieth centuries, the era of growing trade between Africa and the rest of the world. Her very name, which may be translated as "Mother Water," is pidgin English, a language developed to facilitate trade. Countless enslaved Africans forcibly brought to the Americas as part of this "trade" carried with them their beliefs, practices, and arts honoring water spirits such as Mami Wata. Reestablished, revisualized, and revitalized in the African Atlantic, Mami Wata emerged in new communities and under different guises, among them Lasirèn, Yemanja, Santa Marta la Dominadora, and Oxum. African--based

La littérature d'Afrique noire

La littérature moderne d'Afrique noire se situe au confluent de divers courants: ses
propres traditions locales et diverses; l'impact des mondes islamiques et arabes;
l'influence omniprésente du colonialisme européen et du christianisme. Les Africains
se sont montrés particulièrement prolifiques depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale;
utilisant le français, l'anglais, le portugais et plus de quarante langues africaines, ils
ont composé de la poésie, de la fiction, du théâtre, et inventé des formes d'écriture
pour lesquelles il n'existe pas de descriptif dans le monde littéraire européen. Leurs
oeuvres dressent le portrait de la réalité politique et sociale moderne, et s'attachent aux
systèmes de valeurs, qu'ils soient ou non africains. Dans le même temps, leurs écrits
sont fondés sur les traditions indigènes et des visions du monde typiquement
africaines.

Bien avant l'arrivée des Européens, avant même le développement de l'écriture, les
peuples de l'Afrique sub-saharienne ont exprimé de façon artistique leurs pensées,
leurs sentiments et leurs préoccupations les plus profonds, sous la forme de mythes,
de légendes, d'allégories, de